The Nile is a major river in northeast Africa that flows north and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. It is 7,088 kilometers (4,404 miles) long, making it the longest river in the world. However, the amount of water it carries is much less than rivers like the Amazon or the Congo. For thousands of years, the Nile has been important to the environment, economy, and culture of Africa.

The Nile has two main tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The White Nile is longer and is considered the main source of the river, but the Blue Nile carries more water. The White Nile begins near Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile starts near Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. These two rivers meet in the Sudanese capital, Khartoum. From there, the Nile flows north through the Nubian Desert to Egypt's capital, Cairo, and finally empties into the Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, where it forms a large delta.

Geologically, the Nile is a young river that has followed its current path for about 15,000 years. Its drainage basin covers eleven countries. Most of the water in the Nile comes from rainfall in upstream countries like Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Downstream countries—Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan—are mostly desert and use river water for farming. Other countries in the Nile Basin include Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, and Rwanda.

The Nile was the foundation of Ancient Egyptian civilization, which depended on the river for nearly every part of life. The river's annual flooding left nutrient-rich soil along its banks, which helped grow crops and supported a complex society in a desert environment. The Nile also helped with trade, communication, transportation, and governance. South of the second Nile cataract was Nubia, home to the ancient Kerma culture and the Kushite Empire. In the late 19th century, European explorers discovered the river's source near Lake Victoria. Today, the Nilotic peoples, who are semi-nomadic cattle herders, live along the Nile and move their herds seasonally based on the river's flooding.

In modern times, the Nile is vital to the economies of Egypt and Sudan, which use it to irrigate large areas of farmland. Since the late 20th century, more than a dozen dams have been built in the Nile Basin to provide water for farming and to generate electricity. These dams have changed the river's natural flood cycle and limited the movement of silt downstream, causing the Nile Delta to shrink. Dams such as the Aswan High Dam and the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam have caused international disputes over water shortages, safety, food security, and the displacement of people.

Names and etymology

The English word "Nile" comes from the Latin word "Nilus" and the Ancient Greek word "Neilos," which might have been inspired by the Semitic word "naḥal," meaning "river."

In ancient Egyptian writing, the word "jtrw" was used to mean "river" or "Nile." The ancient Egyptians called their country "kmt," which means "black," because the Nile's floodwaters turned dark with sediment from upstream. The English name "Blue Nile" is based on the Arabic name "Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq."

Today, the Nile has many names in different parts of the Nile Basin. In Egypt, it is called "Al-Nīl," "Baḥr Al-Nīl," or "Nahr Al-Nīl." In South Sudan, it is sometimes called "Baḥr el-Jebel," which means "Mountain River" in Arabic. In Uganda, the Luganda language calls it "Kiyira." Some Nubian groups in Egypt and Sudan use the Nobiin name "Áman Dawū," meaning "Great Water."

Several smaller rivers and parts of the Nile include the word "Nile" in their names:

• Albert Nile: A part of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Albert to Nimule
• Black Nile: Another name for the Atbarah River
• Blue Nile: One of the two major rivers that flow into the Nile
• Kyoga Nile: A section of the White Nile between Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert
• Main Nile: The part of the Nile after the Blue Nile and White Nile meet
• Mountain Nile: A section of the White Nile from the mountains of Uganda to the plains of South Sudan
• Victoria Nile: A section of the White Nile from Lake Victoria to Lake Kyoga
• White Nile: One of the two major rivers that flow into the Nile
• Yellow Nile: A dried-up river called "Wadi Howar," which no longer flows today.

Geography

The Nile River is a major river in northeast Africa that flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin includes all land that drains into the Nile River and covers 2,927,843 km, which is about 10% of the African continent (see adjacent map). Eleven countries are fully or partially within the basin: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The basin includes many different climates, ecosystems, and types of land, such as dry deserts in the north, flat wetlands in the middle, and rainy mountain forests in the south.

The basin can be divided into seven regions. Five of these regions include the longest path of the Nile River. In order from the source to the mouth of the river, these regions are: the African Great Lakes, the Mountain Nile, the White Nile, the main Nile, and the Nile Delta. Two additional regions include major tributaries: the Blue Nile and the Atbarah River.

The African Great Lakes region contains the source of the Nile River and several large lakes that are part of the Nile system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward. The source of the Nile is the Rukarara River in Rwanda’s Nyungwe National Park, which flows into the Kagera River and then into Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria is the second-largest freshwater lake in the world but is shallow, with an average depth of 40 meters (130 ft). The Nile River is called the "Nile" where Lake Victoria empties on its north side. The stretch from there to Lake Albert is called the Victoria Nile. Two waterfalls, Ripon Falls and Owen Falls, were once located where the Nile exits Lake Victoria, but both were submerged by the construction of the Nalubaale Dam. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, the Victoria Nile flows into Lake Kyoga. After exiting Lake Kyoga, the river is joined by the Kafu River, then flows over Murchison Falls and into Lake Albert. Lake Albert is a deep lake surrounded by mountains. The river exits Lake Albert on its north shore, where it is called the Albert Nile. This section of the river is flat and wide, making it suitable for steamboats.

The second region of the Nile Basin, proceeding downstream, is the Mountain Nile (Arabic: Bahr al Jabal). This region begins near the town of Nimule and extends to Lake No, and is entirely within South Sudan. After passing Nimule, the river flows through the Fula Rapids and on to Juba, the capital of South Sudan. After Juba, the Nile passes through Bor and enters the Sudd, a large swamp in a flat plain. The slope of the ground in the Sudd is very gentle (1:13,000 rise over run), so the river slows down and widens. Dense vegetation, including sedges, papyrus, and water hyacinth (an invasive plant), clog the waterways and make navigation difficult. At the north edge of the Sudd, the Nile passes through Lake No, where it is joined by the Bahr el Ghazal River (Arabic: 'gazelle river') from the west.

A major tributary in the Mountain Nile region is the Bahr el Ghazal, which flows from western Sudan and joins the White Nile at Lake No. The Bahr el Ghazal’s drainage basin covers about 860,000 square km and receives a lot of rain, but it contributes little water to the Nile compared to other tributaries. Its basin includes Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. The Bahr el Ghazal flows through the city of Wau, South Sudan. It is a permanent stream east of Wau but a seasonal stream to the west.

The third region of the Nile Basin is the White Nile region, which includes an 800 km (500 mi) stretch of river from near Malakal to Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. Here, the White Nile is joined by the Blue Nile. This section of the river is wide and calm, with swamps on both sides. The river is shallow and loses a lot of water due to evaporation.

Where the White Nile meets the Blue Nile, the two rivers have different colors. The White Nile is lighter because it carries sediments rich in quartz and feldspar. The Blue Nile is darker because it carries clay sediments from Ethiopia’s basaltic rocks.

The Sobat River is a tributary that joins the White Nile near Malakal. Its drainage basin, which includes the Machar Marshes, covers about 225,000 square km. The Sobat River floods between July and December.

The fourth region of the Nile Basin—the main Nile—extends from Khartoum to Cairo, the capital of Egypt. This stretch has a relatively uniform width and depth: about 500 meters (1,600 ft) wide and 10 meters (33 ft) deep at its deepest point (when not in flood). Soon after leaving Khartoum, the river enters the Sabaloka Game Reserve and flows through powerful rapids that are too dangerous for boats. This is the sixth (and furthest upstream) of the six cataracts of the Nile. The Atbarah River, a major tributary, joins the Nile, which then follows a large S-shaped curve to the west. Four more cataracts (numbered 5, 4, 3, and 2) are encountered in this curve, making the river unnavigable in most areas. The river then enters Lake Nasser, the world’s second-largest human-made lake, created by the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. This dam flooded more than 480 km (300 mi) of the Nile. The older and smaller Aswan Low Dam is located near the first cataract (now submerged). From these dams, the Nile flows about 800 km (500 mi) through a limestone plateau, bordered by farmland, until it reaches Cairo.

The fifth and final region

Hydrology

The Nile River is the longest river in the world, but it does not carry the most water. Its flow is about 87 km³ per year, which is much less than other major rivers. The Nile's flow is only about 1% of the Amazon River, 6% of the Congo River, and 12% of the Yangtze River.

The main Nile River receives water from three major tributaries: 54% comes from the Blue Nile, 32% from the White Nile (including water from the Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat rivers), and 14% from the Atbarah River. The White Nile and Blue Nile both get water from seasonal rains, but the White Nile’s flow into the main Nile is more steady than the Blue Nile’s. This is because the White Nile flows through lakes and wetlands that help balance the effects of seasonal rain. When the White Nile passes through the Sudd swamps, about half of its water is lost to evaporation.

In contrast, the Blue Nile’s flow changes a lot throughout the year. It floods between July and October due to summer monsoon rains. During these floods, the Blue Nile contributes about 70% of the water to the main Nile, the Atbarah contributes about 20%, and the White Nile contributes about 10%. At the peak of the flood, the daily flow into Lake Nasser is about 0.71 km³, which is three times the average daily flow of 0.23 km³ per day.

Before dams were built on the Nile, the river’s flow in Egypt changed with the seasons, being higher in summer and fall and lower in winter and spring. However, after the Aswan High Dam was built, which created a reservoir that can store about two years of river flow, the water flow downstream from the dam is now more consistent throughout the year.

The Nile carries sediment downstream. Sediment can be either suspended (particles floating in the water) or bedload (sediment on the river bottom that moves along with the water). About 97% of the sediment carried by the Nile comes from the Atbarah and Blue Nile rivers, which both begin in Ethiopia. Sediment erosion and movement happen only during the Ethiopian rainy season when rainfall is very heavy in the Ethiopian Highlands. The rest of the year, the rivers flowing from Ethiopia into the Nile have weaker flows. The soil in the Nile Delta originally came from rocks in Ethiopia. Over the past 30 million years, about 102,000 km³ of rock has been eroded from the Ethiopian Highlands, which is similar in volume to the soil in the Nile Delta, including the underwater part, which is about 150,000 km³.

Sediment carried by a river into a reservoir can settle and reduce the reservoir’s storage space. Sediment buildup behind the Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam (on the Blue Nile), and Khashm el Girba Dam (on the Atbarah) has greatly reduced the storage capacity of these reservoirs since they were built.

Measurements of sediment transport at different locations are listed below. The bedload percentages show the proportion of bedload sediment compared to total sediment (bedload and suspended). This data was collected before the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was built, which will affect sediment levels downstream.

• Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia: 7.6 million tonnes of suspended sediment, with an additional 0.7% bedload
• El Deim (border of Ethiopia and Sudan): 140 million tonnes of total sediment
• Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended sediment, with an additional 28% bedload
• Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment, with an additional 20% bedload
• Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended sediment, with an additional 27% bedload
• Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment, with an additional 13% bedload

As the river moves downstream, it gains water in some areas and loses water in others. A region is a "source" if it adds water to the river, and a "sink" if it removes water. Scientists and policymakers study these sources and sinks to understand water movement and manage water sharing.

The water sources in the Nile Basin include the Ethiopian Highlands and the African Great Lakes region. Water sinks are usually found downstream in South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.

Hydrologists use a method called "water balance" to determine if a region is a source or sink. This method compares the amount of water entering a region (from rain, groundwater, and lakes) with the amount of water leaving (through evaporation, plants, and rivers). If more water flows out than in, the region is a sink; if more water flows in than out, it is a source.

The following table summarizes water balance measurements for countries in the Nile Basin. Most data is given as annual measurements (in km³), but some is shown as an equivalent depth (millimeters per year).

Another way to study the Nile’s water balance is to divide the basin into smaller regions based on geography, not national borders. These smaller basins are named after the river measurement stations downstream. For example, the basin between Lake Victoria and the Murchison Falls station is called the Murchison Falls basin.

Measuring the Nile’s flow has been important for Egyptians to manage safety and farming for thousands of years. Simple tools called nilometers were used to measure the river’s level. A flood that raised the river by 6 meters (20 feet) was considered ideal because it deposited fertile silt on farmland without causing damage. A nilometer on Roda Island has been used since at least 622 CE, and records of river levels were kept from that tool until 1921. Modern gauges began being installed in the 1860s, and more advanced gauges that measure water flow were added starting in 1900.

Ecology

The total number of fish species in the Nile Basin is estimated to be more than 800. In the river alone, 128 species live there, and they belong to 27 different families. Most of these species are part of four families: Cichlidae (cichlids), Cyprinidae (carp), Mormyridae (elephantfish), and Mochokidae (catfish). Many cichlid species are found in the African Great Lakes.

In addition to fish, other animals that sometimes live in the Nile’s waters include hippos, crocodiles, and African buffalo. Other water-dwelling animals are molluscs, crabs, and shrimp. Many animals live in the ecosystems along the riverbanks, such as elephants, antelope, and giraffes. Snails in Nile lakes carry a type of flatworm that causes a disease called schistosomiasis in humans and animals.

Birds that live on or near the Nile include herons, kingfishers, ospreys, and storks, such as the shoebill. Some bird species are found only in the Nile Basin, like the blue-winged goose, while others are found in many parts of the world, such as the moorhen and osprey. Many herons, ducks, geese, and egrets live in the basin year-round, and 14 species of ducks and geese come only during the winter. Most gulls and terns in the basin travel to other places during certain times of the year. Over the past 1,000 years, the ranges of some species have shrunk because of human activities that took over their habitats.

The Great Lakes region of the Nile Basin includes plants such as water lily, papyrus, and water hyacinth. Water hyacinth is not native to the area and has harmed native species in Lake Kyoga. In the Sudd swamp, plants that grow in deep water include Vossia, hippo grass, reed mace, ambatch, and papyrus. Plants that grow in shallow water include Oryza, antelope grass, and Phragmites.

Historically, the Nile’s water was drinkable, but in the late 20th century, it became less healthy in some areas. Pollution is most severe in Lake Tana, near large cities, and in the Nile Delta.

Sources of pollution in the Nile include waste from agriculture, industry, and homes. Thirty-six industries dump their waste directly into the Nile, and 41 industries dump into irrigation canals. These industries include chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizer, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, textile, and wood. Over 90 agricultural drains also release waste into the Nile, including industrial wastewater.

Pollution is worst between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea, caused by human activities, farming runoff, and industrial waste. Pollutant levels increase as the river flows downstream because of the combined effects of pollution sources. The delta is especially vulnerable because it has poor flushing action, flat land, and heavy silt in the riverbed.

In the late 20th century, Lake Victoria had more plant growth than usual, which reduced oxygen levels in the water. This was caused by human activity, deforestation, and poor farming practices, leading to algae blooms and an increase in water hyacinth, which disrupted the ecosystem.

The Nile Basin was wet and humid from 15,000 to 5,000 years ago, allowing large-scale farming to begin around 5,000 years ago. Farming has had a growing impact on the environment, leading to deforestation and soil erosion. These effects were made worse by drier conditions in Africa that started about 4,000 years ago, causing famines, social problems, and environmental damage.

Several species in the Nile Basin have gone extinct because of human activity. The sacred ibis was important in ancient Egyptian religion, and millions were killed in rituals. The species became extinct in Egypt by the late 19th century but still lives in central and southern Africa. In Egypt, overpopulation and the construction of the Aswan High Dam caused many plant and animal species to go extinct or nearly disappear.

The Nile perch was not originally in the Nile River or its lakes but was introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a fishery. This caused the extinction of over 500 cichlid species in Lake Victoria. Scientist Les Kaufman called this the first mass extinction of vertebrates that scientists could observe. The Nile perch also led to more deforestation because firewood was needed to process the fish.

The satellite lakes of Lake Kyoga

Geological history

The Nile River is a young river that developed from older river systems that followed very different paths. Over millions of years, changes in Earth’s movements and the environment caused rivers to shift, split apart, and join together, eventually forming the Nile as it is today. One idea describes the Nile’s geological history as five major stages of development.

The first stage occurred from about 20 million years ago (MYA) to 6 MYA. Around 20 MYA, the western side of the East African Rift System rose, separating the African Great Lakes region from the Congo basin. About 6 MYA, the ancient Nile River in Egypt was a short river that began near the modern Wadi Howar and flowed north into the Mediterranean Sea. Lake Victoria did not exist, and rivers in the Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands did not flow north or connect to the Egyptian Nile.

The second stage occurred from 6 to 5.4 MYA. Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands likely formed during this time, and a large ancient lake—Obweruka—existed where modern Lake Albert and Lake Edward are today. During this period, the Messinian salinity crisis happened: the Strait of Gibraltar closed, blocking the Atlantic Ocean from filling the Mediterranean Sea, causing it to completely dry up. The empty Mediterranean Sea led the ancient Nile to carve a deep gorge in Egypt called the Eonile. Water flowing through the gorge eroded a canyon hundreds of meters below sea level near Aswan and 2,400 meters (7,900 feet) below sea level near Cairo. After the Strait of Gibraltar reopened, the Mediterranean Sea refilled, and the Eonile became a gulf that eventually filled with sediment.

The third stage occurred from 2.5 to 0.5 MYA. For the first time, water from the Ethiopian highlands flowed north and connected to the ancient Nile in Egypt. The Rwenzori Mountains rose, causing Obweruka to begin draining eastward (previously, it drained westward) and starting to form Lake Victoria. Water forming Lake Victoria did not yet flow northward into Sudan or Egypt.

The fourth stage occurred from 0.5 MYA to 15,000 years ago (KYA). Lake Victoria took on its modern shape, and the highlands tilted northward, allowing water to occasionally flow into Sudan and connect to the ancient Nile in Egypt, forming rivers that roughly followed the path of the modern White Nile. Ancient lakes formed in the area of the modern Sudd swamps.

The fifth stage occurred from 15 KYA to the present. The African Great Lakes took their current shapes, and water from these lakes no longer flowed intermittently into Sudan. Some ancient lakes dried up in South Sudan and near the Toshka Lakes in Egypt. During this time, summer rains changed, greatly increasing rainfall in the areas of Lake Victoria and Lake Albert. Water levels in both the Blue Nile and White Nile fluctuated widely, with unusually high levels occurring several times. The current course of the Nile River was established early in this period.

Human history

Early human ancestors lived near the Nile River. A famous fossil called Lucy, which is from the species Australopithecus afarensis, was found just east of the Nile Basin. Olduvai Gorge, where the first Homo habilis fossils were discovered, is located slightly south of the basin. Inside the Nile Basin, the Nyayanga site on Lake Victoria’s east shore has Oldowan tools that are 2.6 million years old. Human settlements along the Nile River date back to between 12,000 and 20,000 years ago, near the modern town of Qurta in Egypt. These people carved pictures of animals like aurochs, birds, hippopotamids, gazelle, hartebeest, and fish into rocks. Some experts believe these people or others nearby may have raised sheep, goats, or cattle. During the African humid period (about 10,000 to 5,000 years ago), the eastern Sahara, including Egypt and Sudan, was much wetter. People in this region developed herding cultures, but when the climate became drier around 3,900 BCE, many moved to the Nile River valley to survive. This led to the rise of Nubian cultures in Sudan and the Ancient Egyptian civilization.

The Nile was central to life in ancient Egypt. It provided food by watering crops, but droughts caused crop failures and famine. The Nile also helped develop science and government, as managing irrigation, predicting floods, and collecting taxes required new math and administrative skills. Weather prediction and astronomy also grew because Egyptians needed to understand the river and its floods.

The ancient Egyptian calendar was based on the Nile’s flood cycle. The year was divided into three seasons: Akhet (flood season), Peret (growing season), and Shemu (harvest season). Akhet brought floods that left fertile soil; Peret was when crops grew; and Shemu was when harvests happened with no rain. The Nile influenced their language: directions were based on facing upstream. Words for "up" and "south" were the same, as were "left" and "east," and "right" and "west." Rain was sometimes called "Nile in the sky."

Ancient Egypt had two main regions: Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta) and Upper Egypt (the Nile Valley, between Giza and the first cataract). The Nile shaped each region differently. In Lower Egypt, changing waterways forced people to move settlements and adjust transportation routes. Each region had a unique plant symbol: papyrus for Lower Egypt and sedge for Upper Egypt.

Ancient Egypt’s southern border was informally marked by the first cataract (near Elephantine Island), because the rapids made travel difficult. Egyptians knew the Nile’s path up to the sixth cataract (modern Khartoum), but not beyond. They built the world’s first major dam, called Sadd el-Kafara, around 2600 BCE to control flooding.

South of the second cataract lies Nubia, home to cultures along the Nile (modern Sudan). These Nubian cultures developed alongside Egypt but had little contact until the Old Kingdom (around 3,000 BCE). One early Nubian civilization was the Kerma culture (2600–1500 BCE), which shifted from herding to farming as the Sahara dried. Around 780 BCE, the Kushite Empire rose along the Nile, including the Atbarah River. The Kushite Empire conquered Egypt under Black Pharaohs who ruled from Napata and Meroë. After Christianity spread, Christian kingdoms like Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia formed in Nubia.

In modern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, the Kingdom of Aksum (1st–960 CE) thrived. Aksum used the Red Sea for trade but also controlled parts of the Atbarah and Blue Nile rivers. The Funj Sultanate (1504–1821) ruled modern Sudan. The Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974) covered modern Ethiopia and Eritrea.

The Nile Basin is home to the Nilotic peoples, who originated near the Nile in South Sudan and later moved to Uganda and Kenya. Nilotic groups like the Dinka and Nuer are major ethnic groups in South Sudan. They are semi-nomadic herders who move their cattle seasonally based on the Nile’s floods.

The Nile helped the Roman Empire grow. The Romans used Egypt’s grain, grown with Nile floodwaters, to feed their people. Emperor Trajan built a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea in the first century. In 642 CE, Arab conquerors brought Islam to Egypt. Between 945 and 977 CE, low Nile floods caused crop failures and political instability, leading to the Fatimid Caliphate. Canals were built and maintained by the Fatimids, Mamluks, and Ottomans for agriculture, trade, and military use. Egypt did not build dams or reservoirs until the 19th century, when cotton became a major crop. Early dams, built under Muhammad Ali (1805–1848), extended the growing season. Canals like the Mahmoudiyah (1818) and Ibrahimiya (1873) were also constructed.

Since ancient Greek times, Europeans have been curious about the Nile’s source and floods. Herodotus, a Greek historian who visited Egypt in 457 BCE, noticed that floods began in summer when Egypt had no rain. Geographers like Eratosthenes (2nd century BCE) guessed the Nile came from central African lakes. Early maps showed the Nile starting in African lakes, but these were not proven until the 1600s.

The Blue Nile’s source was discovered by Portuguese explorers. Jesuit missionary Pedro Páez visited Gish Abay, the source, in the early 17th century. His writings were published later and described his visit between 1613 and 1618. European explorers like Jerónimo Lobo and James Bruce later shared Páez’s findings.

Water politics in the modern era

The Nile River crosses borders between many countries, making it a shared river and a source of political disagreements.

After British rule in Egypt began in 1882, the British built more water projects to help grow more cotton and support Egypt’s growing population. The first major dam on the Nile was the Aswan Low Dam, finished in 1902. Its height was raised in 1912 and again in 1933. Other dams built during this time include the Sennar Dam in Sudan, completed between 1914 and 1925, and the Jebel Aulia Dam in Sudan, finished in 1937. The main purpose of these dams was to help farmers grow crops, while producing electricity was a smaller goal.

In 1929, Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan made an agreement. It allowed Egypt to use 48 billion cubic meters of Nile water each year and Sudan to use 4 billion cubic meters. Egypt also kept the right to monitor water use in upstream countries, build projects without asking upstream nations, and stop any projects that could harm Egypt.

Egypt and Sudan became independent from Britain in the 1950s. In 1959, they updated the 1929 agreement. The new agreement gave Egypt 55.5 billion cubic meters of water and Sudan 18.5 billion cubic meters each year. Upstream countries like Ethiopia, which provides most of the Nile’s water, were not included in this agreement.

The 1959 agreement allowed Egypt and Sudan to build dams. Egypt built the Aswan High Dam, completed in 1970. Sudan built the Khashm el-Girba Dam (1964), Roseires Dam (1966), Merowe Dam (2009), and the Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex (2017).

In 1960, Egypt started building the Aswan High Dam, which stores about two years’ worth of Nile water. The dam turned the river below it into a large irrigation canal. Benefits include more water for farming and more electricity for manufacturing. Problems include worse water quality, less fertile soil, saltier soil, disease, loss of plant and animal homes, and the displacement of Nubian people.

The Aswan High Dam flooded a large area of the Nile Valley, threatening ancient monuments like the Abu Simbel temples. An international effort saved some monuments. The dam also forced Nubians to leave their homes and move to cities in Egypt and Sudan.

Throughout the 20th century, Egypt and Sudan had more power than other Nile countries. After the 1959 agreement, upstream nations like Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda disagreed with the terms. They argued that Egypt and Sudan used the dams to protect themselves from droughts and floods, while upstream countries still faced these problems. Egypt said it might use military force to protect its rights under the agreement.

In the late 20th century, African nations tried to create water-sharing policies, like the Undugu Commission (1983–1993) and TECCONILE (1993–1998), but failed. In 1999, nine Nile countries formed the Nile Basin Initiative to discuss issues peacefully.

At the start of the 21st century, upstream nations began building dams without Egypt or Sudan’s approval. In 2008, Ethiopia built the Tekezé Dam without asking Egypt or Sudan. In 2010, five upstream countries signed the Cooperative Framework Agreement to share water more fairly. Egypt and Sudan opposed this agreement. In 2011, South Sudan became independent and joined upstream nations in disputes.

In 2011, Ethiopia announced plans to build the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile near Sudan. Ethiopia said the dam would help improve its people’s lives by providing electricity. Egypt worried the dam would reduce water for farming, as Egypt already uses most of the river’s water. Sudan was concerned about safety and water supply. Egyptian president Mohamed Morsi suggested using military force, and Egypt and Sudan held joint military exercises.

Negotiations between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt continued as the dam was built and the reservoir filled. In 2015, the countries signed a "Declaration of Principles" about water use and filling the reservoir. In 2019, the United States hosted talks. In 2020, the African Union helped with discussions. Egypt asked the United Nations to intervene, but it refused. In 2021 and 2022, the UAE hosted talks. The GERD was completed in 2020, and by 2025, the reservoir was full, and most of the dam’s power generators were working.

Economy

There is a big difference in farming methods between the northern countries of the Nile Basin (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) and the southern countries (Uganda, Ethiopia, etc.). The north is mostly desert, but the south gets a lot of rain. Crops in the north depend mostly on irrigation, while crops in the south rely on rainwater stored in the soil. Crop production is higher in the north because of the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and the north has many irrigation systems (like dams and canals) supported by government and international help. The amount of water used for farming in the south each year is 229 km³, which is more than twice the total water flow of the Nile River (about 100 km³). Farming in the south is harder because farms are far from markets, while farms in the north are mostly near rivers with good transportation.

Egypt depends almost entirely on the Nile for water because of little rain and groundwater. Main crops in Egypt include cotton, wheat, corn, rice, sorghum, and fava beans. There are usually two growing seasons: summer for cotton and winter for grains and vegetables. Since the 1950s, Egypt has used industrial farming methods (like fertilizers and pesticides) to increase crop production. Egypt’s land is 94% desert and 3% farmland. Most of Egypt’s farmland is in the Nile Delta, with the rest along the Nile River.

Sudan’s main crops are peanuts, cotton, sesame, sugarcane, and sorghum. Other crops include millet, wheat, corn, and barley. Sudan’s crops use water from the Blue Nile and White Nile, supported by dams like the Sennar Dam and Khashm el-Girba Dam. Much of the farmland is in the Gezira Scheme, a large irrigation project started in the 1920s.

The Nile River and its lakes have been a major food source for people living near them since ancient times. In 2000, the Nile Basin produced about 1.4 million tonnes of fish yearly, more than half of all freshwater fish caught in Africa (2.2 million tonnes). Lake Victoria alone, Africa’s largest lake, provided 1 million tonnes of fish. Fish caught in the lakes of the Nile Basin is much higher than fish caught in its rivers. Overfishing is a problem in most parts of the Nile Basin, except for the Sudd.

In the 1950s, Nile perch and Nile Tilapia were introduced to Lake Victoria to help increase fish numbers. This worked, but it reduced the number of native fish species. Today, most fish caught in Lake Victoria are Nile perch and Silver cyprinid (Lake Victoria sardine). Some fish, like Nile perch, are exported to Europe instead of being eaten locally. Fish farming is practiced in some areas of the Nile Basin.

The Nile River and its tributaries power many hydropower stations that can generate over 10 gigawatts (GW) of electricity. Before 2000, there were few dams on the Nile, but governments built more dams after that. Hydropower stations with more than 100 MW of power are listed in tables.

The Nile has a flatter slope in the north compared to the mountainous south, so northern countries (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) have more navigable waterways. In Egypt, the river between the delta and Aswan has no major obstacles, making it useful for transportation. This stretch was used even before steamships because currents helped boats move downstream, and winds helped sailboats go upstream. The Blue Nile is mostly not navigable. Instead of using the river, Ethiopians and Italian colonizers used an overland route called the Strada Imperiale for travel. As late as 1903, explorers tried to find a way to use the Blue Nile for transportation between Ethiopia and Sudan but failed.

In ancient Egypt, the Nile was the main way to travel, and many types of boats were built for both practical and ceremonial use. These boats were strong enough to carry large stones for pyramids and temples. Today, the Nile is still used for transportation, especially in Egypt, which has four navigable waterways for large ships: two in the delta, one between the delta and the Aswan High Dam, and one in Lake Nasser. Egypt moves 500 million tonnes of cargo on the river yearly, which is about 0.8% of all freight in Egypt (most freight moves by road or rail). Goods transported include cement, limestone, coal, petroleum products, and phosphates.

Upstream from Lake Nasser, the Nile and its tributaries have waterfalls, rapids, and dams that make long-distance travel difficult. Another challenge is the Sudd, a large swamp on the White Nile in South Sudan. Plans to build a canal through the Sudd, called the Jonglei Canal, started in the early 20th century to provide more water for cotton farming in Egypt. Construction began in 1978 but was soon stopped.

The Nile River, especially in Egypt, has been a popular tourist destination for thousands of years and has inspired much travel writing. One of the most visited places along the Nile is the Giza pyramid complex, about 9 kilometers from the modern Nile in Cairo, which has been a tourist spot since ancient Greek times.

The stretch of the Nile between Cairo and Aswan has long been a favorite for tourists. During celebrations for the opening of the Suez Canal in 1870, many tourists took boat trips on this part of the river and visited places like Luxor, Dendera, Saqqara, Edfu, and Philae. One of the first travel agencies, Thomas Cook & Son, began offering Nile tours in 1870 and started regular steamboat cruises in 1875. After the Aswan High Dam was built in 1970, the dam itself became a tourist attraction, along with nearby temples moved to avoid being flooded. The dam also helped the cruise industry because the river from Aswan to the delta became safe to travel on all year.

The Nile Basin includes several parks and nature reserves, such as Uganda’s Murchison Falls National Park and Egypt’s Salouga and Ghazal Protected Area. The Bujagali Falls were once a famous rafting spot in Africa but are now underwater due to the Bujagali Power Station.

In culture

The Nile River often appeared in ancient Egyptian art, showing kings fishing or hunting hippopotamuses. Artworks that show the Nile River, either directly or symbolically, are called nilotic landscapes. These landscapes usually include scenes of the river with plants and animals found in Egypt, such as papyrus, palm trees, fish, and water birds. Sometimes, they also show felines, monkeys, or crocodiles.

Nilotic landscapes also appear in ancient Greek and Roman art. Roman artwork often includes more fierce animals, like crocodiles and hippopotamuses. One famous example is the Personification of the River Nile, a large marble statue from around 200 BCE in Rome, now in the Vatican Museum. The statue shows the Nile as a man holding wheat. Next to him is a sphinx, representing Egypt, and sixteen children, which symbolize the height of the Nile’s annual flood. At the statue’s base are crocodiles, pygmies, and hippopotamuses.

The Nile is shown in artworks that include four major rivers: the Nile in Africa, the Danube in Europe, the Ganges in Asia, and the Río de la Plata in the Americas. Examples are the painting The Four Rivers of Paradise by Peter Paul Rubens (1615) and the fountain Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi in Rome, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1651). In Bernini’s fountain, the Nile is shown as a man wearing a cloth over his head, representing the mystery of the river’s source.

The Hymn to the Nile was a song created by ancient Egyptians to celebrate the river’s floods and the benefits they brought to their civilization. Giuseppe Verdi was asked by Isma'il Pasha to write an opera to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal. The opera Aida was performed at the newly built Egyptian Royal Opera House in 1871. The third act of the opera takes place near the Nile River. Since the start of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project, Ethiopian musicians have created songs that praise the Nile and the dam.

In Shakespeare’s play Antony and Cleopatra, the character Marc Antony describes the Nile’s floods: “They measure the Nile’s flow using scales in the pyramid. They know from the river’s height, low level, or average whether there will be a drought or a flood. The higher the Nile swells, the more it promises. When it recedes, farmers scatter seeds on the mud and soon harvest crops.”

Agatha Christie wrote the mystery novel Death on the Nile in 1937, which is about a murder on a Nile steamboat. The book inspired many adaptations. Adrift on the Nile, a 1966 novel by Egyptian author Naguib Mahfouz, tells the story of a young man who lives on a houseboat and sees the Nile as a symbol of a life he cannot control. The Nile also appears in the video game Civilization VI.

Ancient Egyptian beliefs about the universe were based on cycles. They did not see life as having a beginning and end but as a repeating pattern. This idea came from natural events, like the sun’s daily movement and the Nile’s annual floods. The sun god Ra traveled across the sky each day, and the sun’s three daily phases—sunrise, daytime, and sunset—were linked to human life stages: birth, life, and death. Because of this, many burial sites were built on the western bank of the Nile, where the sun sets.

In ancient Egyptian religion, no single god represented the Nile as clearly as the sun god Ra. Gods connected to the Nile included Hapy, who controlled the annual floods, and Khnum, who managed the first cataract. These gods were believed to cause the Nile’s floods, which made the land fertile. Egyptians thought the floodwaters came from Elephantine Island, near the first cataract, where they believed the water flowed from the netherworld.

Isis was an important Egyptian goddess closely linked to the Nile. Her worship spread to Europe by the second century BCE. An example of her influence is the Nile mosaic of Palestrina, a large mosaic in Rome from the first century BCE that shows a detailed Nilotic landscape.

In Greek mythology, Nilus was the god of the Nile River, one of many children of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Nilus was the father of the naiad Memphis, who was said to have founded the city of Memphis.

The Nile River is mentioned many times in the Bible. One story in the Book of Exodus describes the infant Moses being placed in a basket and floating on the river. Some scholars believe the river Gihon, mentioned in the Book of Genesis as one of the four Rivers of Paradise, refers to the Nile. A story important to Coptic Christians in Egypt is in the Book of Matthew, which describes how Joseph and Mary fled to Egypt and lived near the Nile to escape King Herod.