The Inuit (singular: Inuk) are a group of Indigenous peoples who share similar cultures and histories. They traditionally live in the Arctic and Subarctic regions of North America and Russia, including Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Yukon (historically), Alaska, and the Chukotsky District of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The Inuit languages belong to the Eskaleut language family, also called Inuit-Yupik-Unangan or Eskimo–Aleut.

In Canada, Inuit live in most of Northern Canada, including Nunavut, Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec), Nunatsiavut (Labrador), and parts of the Northwest Territories and Yukon. These areas are known as Inuit Nunangat by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and the Canadian government. According to the Constitution Act of 1982, Inuit are a distinct group of Aboriginal Canadians not included under First Nations or Métis.

Greenlandic Inuit, also called Kalaallit, are descendants of people who migrated from Canada to Greenland by 1100 CE. Although Greenland left the European Communities in 1985, Greenlandic Inuit are Danish citizens and remain part of the European Union. In the United States, the Alaskan Iñupiat live in the Northwest Arctic Borough, on the Alaska North Slope, the Bering Strait, and on Little Diomede Island. In Russia, small groups of Russian Iñupiat, originally from Big Diomede Island, now live along the Bering Strait coast of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, particularly in Uelen, Lavrentiya, and Lorino.

Many people who were once called "Eskimo" find that term offensive or forced upon them by colonial powers. The word "Inuit" is now commonly used by a large group of people who identify as such. However, "Inuit" is an ancient term that refers to specific groups, including the Iñupiat of the Bering Strait coast of Chukotka and northern Alaska, the four main Inuit groups in Canada, and the Greenlandic Inuit. This term is not used for closely related groups like the Yupik or Aleut. The Aleut (Unangan) and Yupik peoples, who live in Alaska and Siberia, typically do not identify as Inuit at the individual or local level.

History

Inuit are the descendants of a group called the Thule people, as scientists who study humans say. The Thule people came from the Bering Strait and western Alaska around the year 1000. They separated from the Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from people who came from northeastern Siberia. The Thule people moved east across the Arctic. They replaced the related Dorset culture, called the Tuniit in Inuktitut, which was the last major group of Paleo-Eskimo people.

Inuit stories describe the Tuniit as "giants," people who were taller and stronger than Inuit. Sometimes, the stories refer to the Dorset as "dwarfs." Scientists believe Inuit had advantages because they used dogs for travel and created better weapons and tools than the Dorset people. By the year 1100, Inuit had reached west Greenland, where they settled. During the 12th century, they also settled in east Greenland.

Because of pressure from the Thule and other groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan-speaking peoples to the south, the Tuniit gradually disappeared. The Tuniit were thought to have completely vanished by about the year 1400 or 1500. However, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins found that the Sadlermiut people, who lived on Southampton Island, were likely the last group of the Dorset culture. The Sadlermiut survived until winter 1902–1903, when diseases brought by Europeans caused their extinction.

In the early 2000s, research on DNA showed that the Tuniit and Sadlermiut people were connected. This research also found that no large population changes happened in the Aleutian Islands during the time of the Dorset to Thule transition. However, a 2012 study found no genetic link between the Sadlermiut and the Dorset or Tuniit people. Unlike other Tuniit groups, the Aleut and Sadlermiut had advantages because they lived in isolated areas and used some Thule technologies.

In Canada and Greenland, Inuit mostly lived north of the Arctic tree line, except for those in Labrador, where there are large areas of coastal barrens. In Labrador, there are two Inuit groups: one accepted by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and Nunatsiavut, and one independent, NunatuKavut. The southernmost Inuit community in Nunatsiavut is Rigolet, and the southernmost community in NunatuKavut and the world is L'anse au Clair, Labrador.

In areas south of the tree line, other indigenous groups were already established. Because of challenges from groups like the Chukchi and Siberian Yupik, the Arctic Athabascans and Gwich'in, the Cree, and the Innu, the Inuit did not move far south or east, as in Labrador.

Inuit traded with groups farther south, but conflicts and disagreements were common. Warfare happened among Inuit groups with large populations, such as the Nunamiut (Uummarmiut), who lived near the Mackenzie River delta. Inuit in the Central Arctic, who were more spread out, fought less often.

Inuit first met Europeans when Norse people settled in Greenland. Norse stories mention meetings with "skrælingar," a term used for Indigenous people in North America, including Tuniit, Inuit, and Beothuk.

After about 1350, the climate became colder during a time called the Little Ice Age. This affected Inuit in the high Arctic, as bowhead whales disappeared from Canada and Greenland. Inuit had to eat less nutritious food and lost materials needed for tools and homes, which they had gotten from whaling.

The lives of early Arctic people, like the Paleo-Eskimo, were not greatly changed by the Norse except for trading. After the Norse left Greenland, Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-1500s, Basque whalers and fishermen were working along the Labrador coast and built whaling stations, such as the one found at Red Bay, Labrador. Inuit did not stop them but sometimes stole tools and iron items from the stations.

Martin Frobisher’s 1576 search for the Northwest Passage was the first well-recorded contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher landed near Iqaluit on Baffin Island and met Inuit on Resolution Island. Five sailors were sent to live with Inuit but later died trying to leave Baffin Island in a boat. Frobisher captured three Inuit and took them to England, possibly making them the first Inuit to visit Europe.

Inuit were semi-nomadic, hunting and fishing in lakes, seas, ice, and tundra. While some early French and English explorers claimed Inuit were hostile, recent research shows that Inuit and whalers along the Labrador coast and James Bay had peaceful trade relationships. In the late 1700s, the Moravian Church started missionary work in Labrador, supported by the British, to stop raids on whaling stations. The Moravians provided Inuit with iron and other materials they needed, leading to more peaceful relations.

European contact greatly changed Inuit life. New diseases brought by whalers and explorers caused many deaths, as Indigenous people had no immunity. High death rates led to social changes caused by European goods and materials. However, Inuit in remote areas remained mostly isolated during the 19th century.

The Hudson’s Bay Company opened trading posts, such as Great Whale River (1820), where whale products and furs were traded. In 1821–23, Commander William Edward Parry explored the Northwest Passage and spent winters in Foxe Basin, including in what is now Igloolik. Parry’s writings and drawings of Inuit life, published in 1824, gave Europeans detailed knowledge of Inuit culture.

Nomenclature

The term "Eskimo" is still used by some people, but its use in North America has decreased in the 21st century. In the United States, as of 2016, the word "Eskimo" was often used to describe Inuit, as well as Siberian and Alaskan Yupik and Iñupiat peoples. Some groups and organizations continue to use "Eskimo" to refer to Inuit, Yupik, and other Indigenous peoples of Alaska and Siberia.

In 2011, Lawrence Kaplan, a researcher at the Alaska Native Language Center, noted that the term "Inuit" was not widely accepted to describe Yupik people. He stated that "Eskimo" was frequently used for Yupik, Iñupiat, and Inuit. Later, Kaplan updated his findings to say that "Inuit" has become more widely accepted in Alaska.

There is ongoing discussion about the origin of the word "Eskimo." It likely comes from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) language, meaning "a person who laces a snowshoe." Some people also incorrectly say it comes from the Cree language, meaning "eater of raw meat." This second explanation is no longer considered accurate. However, some Canadian and English-speaking Greenlandic Inuit find the term "Eskimo" disrespectful.

In Canada and Greenland, the term "Inuit" is preferred. "Inuit" is the word for "the people" in Inuktitut (used in Eastern Canada) and Kalaallisut (used in West Greenland). These languages are considered prestigious in their regions, so their version of the term is most commonly used. Other Inuit dialects also use similar words derived from the Proto-Eskimo term *ińuɣ. For example, "people" is called "inughuit" in North Greenlandic and "iivit" in East Greenlandic.

Cultural history

Inuit people speak several languages, including Inupiaq (Inupiatun), Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, and Greenlandic languages. These languages are part of the Inuit-Inupiaq branch of the Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language family.

Inupiaq (Inupiatun) is spoken in Alaska and Russia. In Alaska, it is one of the 22 official languages of the state. In Russia, the language has nearly disappeared because many Inuit moved from Big Diomede Island to Mainland Russia. Most people there now speak Central Siberian Yupik or Russian, with some Inupiaq words still used.

In Canada, three Inuit languages are spoken: Inuvialuktun, Inuinnaqtun, and Inuktitut. Inuvialuktun is used in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region of the Northwest Territories and is an official language there. Inuinnaqtun is spoken in the Northwest Territories and the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut, and it is also an official language in both areas. Inuktitut is the most widely spoken Inuit language in Canada. It is an official language in Nunavut, along with English, and is also used in Nunavik (Northern Quebec), Nunatsiavut (Labrador), and the Northwest Territories, where it is an official language.

Kalaallisut is the official language of Greenland. Greenlandic languages are divided into three groups: Kalaallisut (Western), Inuktun (Northern), and Tunumiit (Eastern). Kalaallisut is spoken by the Western Greenlandic Inuit, while Inuktitut is spoken by the Eastern Canadian Inuit. These two languages are closely related.

Inuit in Alaska and Northern Canada also speak English. In Greenland, Inuit speak Danish and learn English in school. Inuit in Russia mostly speak Russian and Central Siberian Yupik. Inuit from Nunavik in Canada may also speak Québécois French.

Deaf Inuit use Inuit Sign Language (ISL). ISL is a language that is not related to any other language and is nearly extinct. Only about 50 people still use it.

Traditionally, Inuit were fishermen and hunters. They hunted whales, seals, polar bears, muskoxen, caribou, birds, and fish. They also collected plants like grasses, tubers, roots, stems, berries, and seaweed. Their diet was high in protein and fat, with about 75% of their daily energy coming from fat. Inuit used many tools and technologies to hunt and gather food.

In the 1920s, an anthropologist named Vilhjalmur Stefansson studied Inuit people. He found that their diet, which was low in carbohydrates, did not harm their health. He also discovered that they got necessary vitamins, like vitamin C, from raw meat such as seal liver and whale skin (muktuk). His findings were later confirmed in the 1970s and more recently.

Modern Inuit have shorter lifespans than the average Canadian. This is thought to be due to factors like diet and limited access to medical care. The gap in life expectancy has not improved over time.

Inuit women once used facial tattoos, called kakiniit or tunniit in Inuktitut, to show their identity, family, achievements, and community roles. This tradition dates back nearly 4,000 years. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Christian missionaries banned many cultural practices, including tattoos. Today, some Inuit women are reviving this tradition. Traditional tattoos were made with needles made of sinew or bone, but now they use ink. The Inuit Tattoo Revitalization Project helps restore this practice.

Inuit used boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics: ᖃᔭᖅ) to hunt sea animals. These boats were made of seal skin and were very buoyant. They could float even if completely overturned. Non-Inuit later copied this design, calling them "kayaks." Inuit also used larger boats called umiaq, made of wood and animal skins, to transport people and goods.

In winter, Inuit hunted sea mammals by waiting near breathing holes in the ice, called aglu. Polar bears also use this method. Inuit used dog sleds (qamutiik) for transportation. Sleds were made of wood, lashed with animal hide or baleen. If wood was not available, sleds were made from bone, antler, or frozen fish or meat.

Inuit used stars to navigate at sea and landmarks to navigate on land. They created a detailed system of place names. When natural landmarks were not enough, they built inuksuk, stone markers. Greenland Inuit also made tactile wooden maps called Ammassalik maps to show coastlines.

Dogs were important to Inuit life. In summer, they carried heavy loads, and in winter, they pulled sleds. They helped hunt by sniffing out seals and scaring polar bears. Inuit bred dogs for their beauty, health, and strength. Common breeds included the Canadian Inuit Dog, Greenland Dog, Siberian Husky, and Alaskan Malamute.

Inuit tools and art were made from animal hides, driftwood, bones, and stones like soapstone. Walrus ivory was used to make knives. Inuit carved small sculptures of animals and people, showing daily activities like hunting. Today, they also create art from soft stones like soapstone, serpentinite, and argillite.

Traditional Inuit clothing and footwear were made from animal skins, sewn with needles made of bones and threads made from sinew. The anorak (parka) is a type of coat worn by Arctic peoples from Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Traditional beliefs

The environment where Inuit people lived influenced their mythology, which included stories about hunting whales and walruses. During long winter months, when Inuit waited for caribou or hunted seals near breathing holes, they created stories about ghosts and strange creatures. Some Inuit believed the northern lights, or aurora borealis, showed images of family and friends dancing in the afterlife. Others thought the lights were dangerous, and if someone whistled at them, the lights might cut off their head. This story is still told to children today. For some, the lights were seen as invisible giants, the spirits of animals, or guides for hunting. They also helped the angakkuq (shaman), who used these spirits to assist with healing. The angakkuq was not a leader but a healer and advisor who worked with spirits to help people. They were believed to be born with special abilities and recognized by their community as they grew older.

The Inuit religion was based on shamanism and the belief that all things, including humans and animals, have spirits. They thought these spirits could be influenced by supernatural beings if people asked for help. The angakkuq helped people by interpreting spirits and offering advice. They did not receive formal training but were believed to have natural abilities.

Inuit religious practices were connected to daily life and included simple rituals. These rituals were considered important for survival. A traditional Inuit saying stated, "The greatest danger in our lives is that our food comes from the souls of living things."

Inuit believed that all animals had souls, like humans. If hunters did not show respect or perform proper rituals before hunting, the spirits of the animals might seek revenge. Life in the Arctic was difficult and unpredictable, so Inuit understood that they needed to live in harmony with supernatural forces to survive. They believed that respecting these forces was essential for meeting the needs of daily life.

Demographics

There are about 155,000 Inuit living in four countries: Canada, Greenland, Denmark, and the United States.

According to the 2021 Canadian census, 70,540 people in Canada identified as Inuit. This number increased by 8.5% compared to the 2016 census, which counted 65,025 Inuit. Over two-thirds (48,695 people or 69.0%) of Inuit in Canada lived in one of four regions called Inuit Nunangat (Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region). The remaining 21,810 Inuit (30.9%) lived outside these regions. Between 2016 and 2021, the Inuit population grew by 2.9% within Inuit Nunangat and 23.3% outside these regions.

The largest group of Inuit in Canada, as of 2021, lived in Nunavut, where 30,865 Inuit resided out of a total population of 36,858 people. In Nunavut, Inuit make up the majority in all communities and are the only part of Canada where Indigenous peoples are the majority. From 2016 to 2021, the Inuit population in Nunavut grew by 2.4%.

As of 2021, 15,800 Inuit lived in Quebec, with most (about 12,595) living in Nunavik. The Inuit population in Nunavik grew by 6.8% between 2016 and 2021, the fastest growth rate among all four regions of Inuit Nunangat.

In 2021, 7,330 Inuit lived in Newfoundland and Labrador, including 2,090 in Nunatsiavut. The Inuit population in Nunatsiavut decreased by 8.5% between 2016 and 2021.

As of 2021, 4,155 Inuit lived in the Northwest Territories, with most (3,145) living in the six communities of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region. The Inuit population in this region grew by 1.1% between 2016 and 2021.

Outside of Inuit Nunangat, 21,810 Inuit lived in Canada as of 2021. This number increased by 23.3% between 2016 and 2021. Of these Inuit, 33.0% lived in Atlantic Canada (24.0% in Newfoundland and Labrador), 19.8% in Ontario, 19.0% in the Canadian Prairies, 14.7% in Quebec, 7.9% in British Columbia, and 5.6% in the Northwest Territories and Yukon.

In Newfoundland and Labrador, outside of Inuit Nunangat, there is an area called NunatuKavut, which is not officially recognized as an Inuit territory. About 6,000 people who identify as NunatuKavummiut (formerly called "Labrador-metis") live in southern Labrador. Numbers here are not expected to increase significantly because of strict requirements for joining, such as proof of Inuit ancestry and a connection to NunatuKavut society.

According to a 2024 estimate from the CIA World Factbook, 88% (50,878) of Greenland’s population of 57,751 people are Inuit. Like Nunavut, Inuit in Greenland live in all habitable areas of the country.

The number of Greenlandic Inuit living in Denmark varies between 15,000 and 20,000, depending on the source. According to 2023 data from Statistics Denmark, 17,067 people in Denmark have Greenlandic Inuit ancestry. Most come to Denmark for education and stay after completing their studies. These people are mostly found in the four largest cities: Copenhagen, Aarhus, Odense, and Aalborg, where they have active cultural communities and centers (Kalaallit Illuutaat).

According to the 2000 U.S. census, there were 16,581 Inuit and Inupiat living in the United States. Most (about 14,718) live in Alaska. According to 2019 data from the U.S. Census Bureau, there are 700 Alaskan Natives in Seattle, many of whom are Inuit or Yupik, and nearly 7,000 in Washington state.

Governance

The Inuit Circumpolar Council is a United Nations-recognized non-government group that represents Inuit people in Canada, Greenland, Alaska, and Russia. It includes Canada's Inuit and Inuvialuit, Greenland's Kalaallit Inuit, Alaska's Inupiat and Yup'ik, and Russia's Siberian Yupik. Even though the Siberian Yupik and Alaska's Yup'ik do not speak Inuit languages or identify as Inuit, the council works with other groups to support Inuit and other northern communities in addressing issues like climate change, which greatly affects Inuit populations. The council is one of six Arctic Indigenous groups with a special role in the Arctic Council, an international forum where eight Arctic countries (United States, Canada, Russia, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland) discuss Arctic policies. On May 12, 2011, Greenland's Prime Minister Kuupik Kleist hosted a meeting of Arctic Council ministers in Nuuk. High-level officials, including the American Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt, and Norwegian Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre, attended. At this meeting, they signed the Nuuk Declaration.

Inuit Nunangat is a region in Canada, and the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami oversees four official Inuit regions. However, NunatuKavut, a group in southern Labrador, is not officially recognized.

The Inuvialuit are Inuit people in western Canada who remained in the Northwest Territories when Nunavut was created. They live mainly in the Mackenzie River delta, on Banks Island, and parts of Victoria Island in the Northwest Territories. They are represented by the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation. In 1984, they signed the Inuvialuit Final Agreement, the first land claim agreement in Northern Canada.

The TFN (Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami) worked for ten years and reached an agreement with the Canadian government in September 1992. This agreement led to the creation of Nunavut, a new territory in the east where Inuit people are the majority, and a smaller Northwest Territories in the west. This was the largest land claim agreement in Canadian history. In November 1992, nearly 85% of Inuit in what would become Nunavut approved the agreement. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement was signed on May 25, 1993, in Iqaluit by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Paul Quassa, president of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, which replaced the TFN. The Canadian Parliament passed the necessary laws in June 1993, allowing Nunavut to become a territory in 1999.

In 1953, Denmark ended its colonial control of Greenland and granted home rule in 1979. In 2008, Greenland passed a self-government referendum with 75% approval. Though part of the Kingdom of Denmark (along with Denmark and the Faroe Islands), Greenland, known as Kalaallit Nunaat in its language, has significant independence today. About 80% of Greenland's 56,000 people identify as Inuit. Their economy depends on fishing and shrimping.

The Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. They met the Norsemen, who had settled there since the late 10th century, and the Dorset people. Because much of Greenland is covered in ice, the Greenland Inuit (or Kalaallit) live only in coastal areas, especially the northern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast, and the central coasts of western Greenland.

In Alaska, the Inuit are called the Iñupiat. They live in the Northwest Arctic Borough, the North Slope Borough, and the Bering Strait region. Utqiagvik, the northernmost city in the United States, is in the Inupiat region. Their language is Iñupiaq.

Genetics

A study published in the journal Science in August 2014 looked at remains from the Dorset culture, Birnirk culture, and the Thule people. The research found that Inuit, Thule, and Birnirk people shared similar genes, mostly carrying a specific type of genetic marker called A2a. These groups had very different genes compared to the Dorset people. The evidence showed that Inuit people are descendants of the Birnirk people from Siberia. Through the Thule culture, these people moved into northern Canada and Greenland, where they replaced the Indigenous Dorset people genetically and culturally sometime after the year 1300 AD.

Inuit people often have the dry type of earwax.

Modern culture

Inuit art, including carving, print making, textiles, and throat singing, is popular in Canada and around the world. Inuit artists are well known. Canada has used symbols from Inuit culture, such as the inuksuk, in places like the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Major art galleries display Inuit art, with the largest collection at the Winnipeg Art Gallery. Their traditional New Year is called Quviasukvik.

Some Inuit languages, like Inuktitut, are more likely to survive in Quebec and Nunavut. Many Inuit, even those living in cities like Ottawa, Montreal, and Winnipeg, have lived on the land and followed traditional lifestyles. People such as Legislative Assembly member Levinia Brown and former Commissioner Helen Maksagak were born and lived on the land during their early lives. Inuit culture remains strong today despite past challenges.

The Arctic Winter Games, held every two years, take place in northern communities worldwide. These games include traditional Inuit and northern sports and cultural events. First held in 1970, the games have been hosted in Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and other places like Schefferville, Quebec, and Iqaluit, Nunavut. Jordin Tootoo became the first Inuk to play in the National Hockey League in the 2003–2004 season.

Although Inuit life has changed over the past century, many traditions remain. Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit, or traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, music, and dancing, is still important. Family and community are central to Inuit culture. The Inuktitut language is spoken in many Arctic areas and used in radio and television.

Well-known Inuit politicians include P.J. Akeeagok, former Premier of Nunavut; Lori Idlout, a member of Parliament; Eva Aariak, Commissioner of Nunavut; and Múte Bourup Egede, Prime Minister of Greenland. Leona Aglukkaq was the first Inuk to serve in the Canadian Federal Cabinet as Health Minister in 2008. She later became Minister of the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency and Minister of the Environment.

Inuit culture includes strong visual and performing arts. In 2002, the first feature film in Inuktitut, Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner, was released globally and received praise. Directed by Zacharias Kunuk, the film was created almost entirely by Inuit from Igloolik. In 2009, the Greenlandic-language film Le Voyage D'Inuk was directed by Mike Magidson. Pitseolak Ashoona is a famous Inuit artist, and Susan Aglukark is a popular singer. Cape Dorset is known as Canada’s most artistic city, with many people working in the arts. Soapstone carvings are an important industry in Nunavut.

Some younger Inuit face challenges balancing traditional heritage with modern life. Many rely on modern society for jobs, food, and medicine, which has increased interactions with outside cultures. These changes have caused identity struggles, leading to high rates of suicide among Inuit youth.

David Pisurayak Kootook was honored with the Meritorious Service Cross for saving lives during a 1972 plane crash. Other notable Inuit include journalist Ossie Michelin, whose photograph of activist Amanda Polchies during the 2013 anti-fracking protests became widely shared online.