Protected areas or conservation areas are places that are protected because they have important natural or cultural features. These areas limit human activity and the use of natural resources, such as firewood, non-timber forest products, and water.

The term "protected area" includes both marine protected areas and areas that cross borders between countries. As of 2016, there are more than 161,000 protected areas, covering about 17% of the world's land area (excluding Antarctica).

For ocean areas under national control beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering about 10.2% of coastal and marine regions and 4.12% of the world's oceans. However, only 0.25% of the ocean beyond national control is protected by MPAs.

In recent years, the "30 by 30" plan aims to protect 30% of ocean and land areas worldwide by 2030. This goal was adopted by the European Union in its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and promoted during the Convention on Biodiversity's COP15 Summit and the G7 meetings. In December 2022, countries agreed to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at COP15, which includes the "30 by 30" plan.

Protected areas are often created to help protect biodiversity by providing habitats and protecting threatened and endangered species from hunting. Protection helps keep natural processes alive in areas that are not heavily managed. However, Indigenous peoples and local communities often criticize this method because enforcement of rules in these areas can sometimes involve forceful actions.

IUCN definition

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has provided a widely accepted definition of protected areas in its guidelines. These areas help reduce the effects of climate change in several ways:

• They stop harmful activities such as fishing, hunting, building, farming, mining, logging, and sometimes even entering the area.
• They help reduce changes in where animals and plants live, the strength of storms, and the effects of rising sea levels.

• They fight ocean acidification by keeping plants and algae that grow along the coast healthy, supporting fish populations (which help balance ocean pH), and increasing natural carbon removal through the biological pump.
• They increase the number of animals and plants, improve their ability to survive, increase genetic variety, and help species adapt better, which lowers the risk of extinction.

Protection of natural resources

Protected areas are created to protect the variety of plants and animals in the world and to track how well this protection is working. These areas often include other important places, such as areas important for birds, places with unique plant life, lands managed by local communities, and sites that help prevent species from becoming extinct. Protected areas may also be part of larger regions, like mountain or ocean areas that are important for the environment. Because of this, protected areas can be managed in many different ways. Many groups, including government agencies, local communities, and private organizations, help manage these areas. Most groups that manage protected areas recognize the importance of including local people in decisions and sharing the benefits and costs of protection. This has led to the identification of four main types of management, based on who makes decisions and who is responsible. Management of protected areas has become an important part of their success.

The total area of forests in protected areas around the world is about 813 million hectares, which is about 20% of all forests. Asia has the largest share of forests in protected areas, with 26%. Since 1990, the area of forests in protected areas has grown by 251 million hectares. In 2025, about 386 million hectares of forest are protected mainly to help protect soil and water, an increase of 123 million hectares since 1990. This growth has been especially fast in recent years. Europe has the largest area of forest protected for soil and water, at 173 million hectares, which is 17% of the region’s total forest. Asia has the largest share of forest protected for soil and water, at 20%.

Protected areas can help protect a wide range of natural resources. Many are set up to protect plants and animals, but they also help protect places important to local cultures and valuable natural resources, such as:

• Carbon stocks: Deforestation causes about 20% of all carbon emissions, so protecting forests helps reduce these emissions and stop long-term changes to land. About 15.2% of the world’s carbon is stored in protected areas. South America holds 27% of the world’s carbon, the highest share of any continent.
• Rainforests: Protected areas cover 18.8% of the world’s forests. Sixteen of the twenty main types of forests have 10% or more of their area protected. Of 670 forest regions, 54% have 10% or more of their forest protected.
• Mountains: Protected areas cover 14.3% of the world’s mountain areas. These areas made up 32.5% of all protected land in 2009. Mountain protected areas have grown by 21% since 1990. Of 198 countries with mountain areas, 43.9% still protect less than 10% of their mountains.

Updates on these topics are shared each year to compare progress with global goals. Other areas, such as freshwater, oceans, islands, and drylands, are being studied to improve how protected areas are managed.

Protection of biodiversity

Scientists can learn how well protected areas help protect biodiversity by looking at how animal populations change over time. A study found that the number of 2,239 land-based vertebrate populations decreased more slowly in protected areas. On average, these populations decreased five times slower in protected areas (−0.4% per year) compared to similar areas without protection (−1.8% per year).

Protection of ecosystem services

Protected areas are important because they store valuable natural resources and provide essential ecosystem services, even though many people are unaware of these benefits. While protecting biodiversity is a primary reason for creating protected areas, this also helps maintain ecosystem services that people rely on. Ecosystem services can be grouped into four categories: those that provide resources, those that regulate natural processes, those that support life, and those that have cultural or aesthetic value. Services that provide resources include things like water and fuel. Services that regulate natural processes help control climate, absorb carbon dioxide, and reduce the spread of diseases. Services that support life involve processes like recycling nutrients in the soil. Cultural services include the beauty and heritage value of nature, which attract tourists and preserve traditions. These services are often ignored because the ecosystems that provide them are located far from cities. When pollution harms an ecosystem within a protected area, it reduces the benefits that people receive from that area. For example, protecting a body of water helps preserve the tiny organisms in it that filter out harmful substances and keep the water clean. Therefore, creating protected areas is crucial for keeping ecosystem services healthy and reliable, ensuring that society can benefit from nature without relying on human-made systems or rules.

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

The IUCN, through its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), created six Protected Area Management Categories. These categories describe protected areas based on their management goals. They are used by many countries and the United Nations to set standards for defining protected areas and help countries plan how to protect nature.

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories:

• Category Ia – Strict nature reserve
• Category Ib – Wilderness Area
• Category II – National park
• Category III – Natural monument or Feature
• Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area
• Category V – Protected Landscape or Seascape
• Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources

History

Protected areas are cultural items, and their history is connected to the history of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is not a new idea. For example, indigenous groups have protected sacred sites for many years, and European rulers created hunting reserves long ago. Over 2,000 years ago, royal laws in India protected certain areas. In Europe, wealthy and powerful people protected hunting grounds for about 1,000 years. The idea of protecting special places is found worldwide, such as in Pacific communities ("tapu" areas) and parts of Africa (sacred groves).

The oldest legally protected reserve recorded in history is the Main Ridge Forest Reserve, created by an ordinance on April 13, 1776. Some sources mention that in 1778, Qing China approved a protected area on Khan Uul, a mountain previously protected by local nomads in Mongolia. However, the large-scale movement to create protected areas began in the late 1800s in North America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, with other countries following later. While the idea of protected areas spread globally in the 20th century, the reasons for protecting them varied by region. For example, in North America, protected areas focused on preserving beautiful landscapes; in Africa, they aimed to protect wildlife; and in Europe, protecting natural landscapes was more common.

Creating protected areas often had political meaning. In the 17th and 18th centuries, protected areas were mostly hunting grounds for rulers. These areas showed the power of monarchs and were often near the ruler’s home. In the late 1800s, modern nations formed because of advances in transportation and communication. These nations could claim control over large areas, making it possible to create nature reserves in distant regions, which also showed their power.

At first, protected areas were recognized differently in each country until 1933. That year, an international meeting in London tried to create common standards and terms for protected areas. In 1962, a conference in Seattle acknowledged how the Industrial Revolution harmed the environment and agreed to protect it for future generations.

Since then, governments and groups worldwide have worked to keep protected areas organized and updated. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration said that protecting examples of all major ecosystems was essential for conservation. This idea became a key rule in conservation biology and was later included in agreements like the World Charter for Nature (1982), the Rio Declaration (1992), and the Johannesburg Declaration (2002).

Recently, the importance of protected areas has grown because of human-caused climate change and the need to use natural resources wisely. Protected areas are valued not only for their ecological benefits but also for their cultural importance, especially through Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). ICCAs are natural or changed ecosystems that have high biodiversity and provide ecological services. These areas are protected by indigenous and local communities through traditions or other methods.

As of December 2022, 17% of land and 10% of ocean areas were protected. At the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, nearly 200 countries agreed to protect 30% of land and oceans by 2030 ("30 by 30").

Convention on Biological Diversity

In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) described a protected area in paragraph 2 as "a specific place that is set up and managed to reach goals for protecting nature." Article 8 of the CBD required countries that joined the treaty to, among other actions, "create a system of protected areas." In 2004, the CBD's Conference of the Parties (COP) approved the Program of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) to help improve and support protected areas. The goal of PoWPA was to "create and maintain by 2010 for land areas and by 2012 for ocean areas complete, well-managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas. These systems, including a global network, would help achieve the CBD’s goals and the 2010 target to greatly slow the loss of biodiversity." In 2010, protected areas were included in Target 11 of the CBD’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, called the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Target 11 states:

In 2018, to support conservation efforts across land, sea, and rivers, the term "other effective area-based conservation measures" was defined as "a specific place that is not a protected area but is managed in ways that help protect nature, including ecosystems and services, and where possible, cultural, spiritual, and local values." These measures work alongside protected areas in different environments. Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are mentioned together in Target 3 of the draft Global Biodiversity Framework. This framework is expected to be finalized at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which will take place from December 5 to 17, 2022, in Montreal, Canada.

Challenges

Managing areas set aside for conservation involves many challenges, such as dealing with the needs of local people, protecting ecosystems, and designing the protected area itself. Because nature is unpredictable, each protected area needs special rules tailored to its unique situation.

Enforcing the boundaries of protected areas is expensive and requires a lot of work, especially when new protected areas limit how local people use natural resources. This can lead to conflicts between conservationists and nearby communities. These conflicts often result in illegal hunting for food or trophies, as some people turn to these activities when their usual ways of living are disrupted. Over time, poaching has increased because certain species are no longer easily accessible through legal means. To address these issues, governments have introduced new laws and policies, but many illegal activities still go unnoticed.

There is growing recognition that the needs of people must be considered when creating protected areas. This means sometimes making choices between conservation goals and human needs. In the past, governments often decided where to place protected areas without consulting local communities. Now, there is more emphasis on involving people who are affected, such as local residents, in planning and managing these areas. While these discussions can be difficult, they often lead to better long-term solutions for both conservation and communities.

In some places, protected areas are created without the necessary tools or systems to replace resources people rely on or to stop harmful activities. Setting up protected areas may require rules that ensure enough food, fuel, and other resources are available. It also involves enforcing laws not only within the protected area but also in surrounding "buffer zones" that help protect the area from damage.

Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing, and Degazettement (PADDD)

PADDD refers to changes in the legal status of protected areas, such as national parks, in both land and ocean environments. Downgrading means reducing the rules that limit human activities within a protected area. Downsizing means making the area smaller by legally changing its boundaries. Degazettement means completely removing legal protection for an entire area. Together, these processes weaken or eliminate the original protections that made the area a protected space.

Studies have found that 3,749 PADDD events have occurred in 73 countries since 1892, affecting an area about the size of Mexico. These events have happened both in the past and today, with 78% occurring since the year 2000. In at least 14 countries, governments are currently considering 46 new PADDD proposals. The main reasons for PADDD vary, but 62% of events worldwide are linked to large-scale industries, such as mining, farming, and oil and gas development.

PADDD challenges the idea that protected areas are permanent. It shows that decision-makers must consider both the features of protected areas and the social and economic conditions around them to ensure these areas remain protected over time.

Effectiveness

A main goal of protected areas is to stop the loss of different types of plants and animals. However, they are not very effective because they are often small and separated from each other, which makes it harder for species to survive. They also have limited ability to stop problems like climate change, invasive species, and pollution. Protected areas can be expensive to manage, and there are often conflicts between protecting nature and people's need for natural resources. Other factors, such as the kind of habitat, the types of species living there, legal issues, and how areas are managed—like in recent studies of community-managed areas in Madagascar—also affect their success.

One major problem is that only 18% of protected areas have been studied, so it is unclear how well most of them work.

Bhutan as a role model

Scientists suggest that half of the world’s land and oceans should be turned into connected protected areas to help protect wildlife and natural resources. Bhutan, a country in Asia, has met this goal by protecting 51.4% of its land through interconnected protected areas and biological corridors. These networks are carefully managed, with local communities understanding their importance and helping to maintain them. However, Bhutan is a developing country that is building new infrastructure and using natural resources, which has led to conflicts between humans and wildlife and increased challenges for its protected areas. Because of disagreements about how land should be used, Dorji and others conducted a study using camera traps to compare wildlife activity in Bhutan’s protected areas and nearby non-protected areas.

The study found that Bhutan’s protected areas are successfully preserving medium and large mammal species. There was a clear difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas, with the greatest difference seen between protected areas and non-protected areas. Protected areas had the highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This success is due to limits on commercial activities and rules about using resources like firewood and timber. These restrictions have helped protect a wide variety of carnivores and rare mammals, including Chinese pangolins, Indian pangolins, mountain weasels, small-toothed ferret badgers, Asian small-clawed otters, tigers, dholes, binturongs, clouded leopards, and Tibetan foxes. Large herbivores such as Asiatic water buffalo, golden langurs, musk deer, and Asian elephants are also common in these areas. The presence of these important and rare species is due to Bhutan’s strong management of its protected areas and the dedication of local communities to conservation efforts.

By region

The National Heritage List is a list of places in Australia that are considered very important for heritage. It was created in 2003 and includes both natural and historic places, including those that are culturally significant to Indigenous Australians. Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are created through agreements with Indigenous Australians and are managed by them. These areas are a special type of protected area.

China, a country with a wide variety of plants and animals, has started creating many protected areas in recent years. By 2017, China had about 10,000 to 12,000 protected areas, 80% of which are nature reserves meant to protect biodiversity. These reserves help protect different ecosystems, such as tropical forests and marine areas. These protected areas cover nearly 20% of China's land.

Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas in the European Union (EU) that includes all member countries. It consists of two types of areas: Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs). These areas are set up under EU laws about habitats and birds. Natura 2000 includes 787,767 km of land and 251,564 km of marine areas. This covers 18% of the EU's land.

Protected areas in India include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, reserved and protected forests, conservation and community reserves, communal forests, private protected areas, and conservation areas.

In Indonesia, the legal protection of nature is covered by two main laws: Law No. 5 of 1990 about conserving biological natural resources and ecosystems, and Law No. 41 of 1999 about forestry (which includes Law No. 5 of 1967 about basic forestry rules). Indonesia has more than 500 protected areas, including 57 national parks and other nature and game reserves. These areas cover about 36.1 million hectares, or 18.9% of Indonesia's land.

Lebanon, a country with one of the highest levels of plant diversity in the Mediterranean region, has laws to protect natural sites, including nature reserves, forests, and Hima (community-based conservation areas). Some of these sites have international designations, such as:
– Four Ramsar sites
– Five UNESCO World Heritage Sites
– 15 Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
– One Specially Protected Area (SPA)
– Two Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMI)

Lebanon has three UNESCO-designated biosphere reserves:
1. Al Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve (2005)
2. Jabal Al Rihane Biosphere Reserve (2007)
3. Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve (2009)

O Parks, also called "Private Reserves," are protected areas managed by the O corporation International for biodiversity conservation. These areas are not officially recognized by the government but are owned and managed by the company. O Parks help protect important biodiversity in the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, specifically in the Paso del Istmo region between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean.

In the Philippines, protected areas are managed by the Biodiversity Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992. As of 2020, the Philippines had 244 protected areas covering about 7,760,000 hectares, or 15.4% of the country's total area.

On May 21, 2019, The Moscow Times reported that Russia has the most protected natural areas in the world, with 63.3 million hectares of specially protected areas. However, the article did not include a link to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) report, and the data may be from earlier years.

As of January 31, 2008, the United Nations Environment Programme reported that the United States had 6,770 federally designated protected areas. These areas cover 2,607,131 km, or 27.08% of the U.S. land area. This is about one-tenth of the world's protected land.

According to a report from the Center for American Progress, the Biden administration achieved a record for conservation efforts. In three years, it protected or was working to protect more than 24 million acres of public land. In 2023 alone, over 12.5 million acres became protected areas. The administration also signed 200 agreements with Indigenous groups for co-stewardship. The goal is to protect 30% of the U.S. land and marine areas by 2030.

In the United Kingdom, the term "conservation area" usually refers to an urban or village area with special architectural or historic value. These areas aim to protect the character of buildings and trees. The concept was introduced in 1967, and by 2017, nearly 9,800 conservation areas had been designated in England. As of 2019, 2.2% of England, or 2,938 km, was a conservation area. Of these, 59% were in rural areas, and 41% were in urban areas.