Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to old or broken electrical and electronic devices that are no longer used. It is also called waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life electronics. E-waste is one of the fastest-growing types of waste worldwide, because technology develops quickly and more people use electronic devices. In 2022, about 62 million tonnes of e-waste were created globally, but only 22.3% were properly collected and recycled. Experts predict that by 2030, e-waste will reach 82 million tonnes worldwide. Used electronics that are repaired, reused, sold, or recycled are also considered e-waste. In some places, people handle e-waste without proper safety measures, which can harm their health and pollute the environment. The increased use of electronic devices, due to the Digital Revolution and new technologies like Bitcoin, has created a global e-waste problem. The fast growth of e-waste is caused by frequent new product releases, unnecessary purchases of electronic equipment, short product life cycles, and low recycling rates. Parts of old electronics, like computer processors, may contain harmful substances such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Handling and recycling e-waste can be dangerous for workers and their communities.
Definition
When an electronic product is no longer useful and is thrown away, it becomes electronic trash, or e-waste. As new models of electronic products are developed, older ones often become outdated and are discarded. E-waste is created in large amounts because of the high use of electronic products and the fast pace of technological progress.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides e-waste into ten groups. These groups include electronics that will be reused, sold, repaired, recycled, or thrown away. They also include working electronics that can be fixed and materials like copper, steel, or plastic that can be used again. The term "waste" refers to materials that are thrown away instead of being recycled, such as leftover parts from recycling or reuse. Many types of old electronics are often mixed together, including working, recyclable, and non-recyclable items. Some groups use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" to describe all old electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which are used in older televisions and monitors, are among the hardest types of e-waste to recycle.
Another group, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development, divides e-waste into six categories. Electronics in each category differ in how long they last, how they affect the environment, and how they are collected. About 70% of the toxic waste in landfills comes from electronic waste, even though e-waste makes up only 3% of all waste in landfills.
CRTs contain high amounts of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), which are needed for the screen to work. The EPA in the United States lists discarded CRT monitors as "hazardous household waste." However, CRTs that are set aside for testing may be considered valuable if they are recycled or sent to be recycled under certain conditions. CRTs are often confused with DLP Rear Projection TVs, which have different recycling processes because of the materials they are made from.
In the European Union and its member countries, a system called the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) is used to classify waste. This system is based on a European Council Directive and is adapted into laws for each member country. In the United Kingdom, this is done through the List of Wastes Directive. The EWC defines what is considered hazardous electronic waste, and waste operators must follow rules about handling hazardous waste. Materials in the waste are also assessed using specific guidelines to determine if they are hazardous.
Some exporters mix old, hard-to-recycle, or broken electronics with working equipment to save money on separation and treatment. Some groups may expand the definition of "waste" electronics to protect local markets from used equipment made in other countries.
The value of recycling working computers, such as laptops, desktops, and parts like RAM, can help pay for transporting large amounts of less valuable electronic waste. A 2011 study in Ghana found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported into the country, 30% was new and 70% was used. Of the used electronics, 15% was not reused and was thrown away. This contrasts with unconfirmed claims that 80% of the imported electronics were burned in unsafe conditions.
Bitcoin has been linked to large amounts of e-waste, with 30.7 million kilograms of e-waste produced as of May 2021. This amount is similar to the e-waste produced by a small country like Denmark. This has raised questions about whether Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are environmentally sustainable.
Quantity
E-waste is the fastest-growing type of waste in the world. A 2024 study shows that about 62 million tons of e-waste are created globally each year. Only 22.3% of this waste is officially collected and recycled. The rest is often handled informally in developing countries, which can harm people’s health and the environment. Each year, about $62 billion worth of valuable materials from electronics are lost because not enough recycling happens.
Fast changes in technology, new inventions, lower prices, and planned obsolescence (when products are made to stop working after a short time) cause more e-waste. Few circular solutions exist, but legal rules, collection systems, and other services are needed before technical fixes can be used.
Parts like display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, APU chips), memory (DRAM, SRAM), and audio components have different lifespans. Processors often become e-waste because software stops working with them. Display units are often replaced even if they still work, due to changing preferences for new technology. Modular smartphones, like the Phonebloks concept, could help. These phones have replaceable parts, making them more durable and better for the environment. Replacing broken parts instead of throwing away whole phones can reduce e-waste. About 50 million tons of e-waste are made yearly. The USA throws away 30 million computers each year, and 100 million phones are discarded in Europe annually. Only 15 to 20% of e-waste is recycled, with the rest going to landfills or incinerators.
A 2023 report by UNEP says e-waste could increase by 500% in some countries, like India, over the next decade. The United States produces the most e-waste, about 3 million tons yearly. China makes about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate), second only to the U.S. Even though China banned importing e-waste, it still receives a lot from developed countries.
E-waste contains both dangerous and valuable materials. It includes heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel, as well as harmful chemicals like flame retardants and dioxins. These can harm the environment and people if not handled properly. Electronics also have many metals, such as copper, aluminum, iron, gold, silver, and palladium, which are more concentrated than in regular ores. Apple sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad) by 2013. Some phone companies design phones to last only a short time, encouraging people to buy new ones. In the U.S., about 70% of heavy metals in landfills come from old electronics.
There is agreement that more electronic devices are being thrown away, but there is disagreement about how risky this is compared to other waste, like car parts. Some believe stopping the trade of used electronics could help, while others think it might make the problem worse. A 2016 report found that Asia had the most e-waste (18.2 million tons), followed by Europe (12.3 million tons), the Americas (11.3 million tons), Africa (2.2 million tons), and Oceania (0.7 million tons). Oceania had the highest e-waste per person (17.3 kg), but only 6% was collected and recycled. Europe had the highest collection rate (35%), while the Americas and Asia collected only 17% and 15%, respectively. Africa generated the least e-waste per person (1.9 kg), but little data is available on recycling rates.
In 2019, 53.6 million tons of e-waste were created globally, with an average of 7.3 kg per person. This is expected to rise to 74 million tons by 2030. Asia still produces the most e-waste (24.9 million tons), followed by the Americas (13.1 million tons), Europe (12 million tons), and Africa and Oceania (2.9 million and 0.7 million tons). Europe had the highest e-waste per person (16.2 kg), and Oceania was second (16.1 kg). Africa had the lowest (2.5 kg). Europe recycled 42.5% of its e-waste, and Asia recycled 11.7%. The Americas and Oceania recycled 9.4% and 8.8%, while Africa recycled only 0.9%. Of the 53.6 million tons of e-waste, only 9.3% was officially collected and recycled. The fate of 44.3% remains unknown. More countries are creating e-waste laws now, covering 66% of the world’s population, up from 44% in 2014.
In 2021, about 57.4 million tons of e-waste were made globally. In Europe, where e-waste is best studied, 11 of 72 electronic items in an average home are broken or not used. Each person in Europe also stores 4 to 5 kg of unused electronics at home yearly.
Global trade issues
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One theory suggests that more rules about handling electronic waste and worries about how it harms the environment in poorer countries may make it less likely for people to clean up waste before sending it abroad. People who are against the trade in used electronics say that it is still too easy for some people who call themselves recyclers to send electronic waste that has not been checked to developing countries, such as China, India, and parts of Africa. This helps them avoid the cost of removing harmful parts, like broken cathode ray tubes, which are expensive to process. These developing countries have become places where a lot of e-waste is dumped. In some cases, these countries repair and reuse old equipment, but in 2003, 90% of e-waste still ended up in landfills there. Supporters of international trade say that fair trade programs in other industries have helped create jobs and brought affordable technology to countries where repair and reuse are more common.
People who support the trade in used electronics say that mining for metals in new places has moved to developing countries. Recycling metals like copper, silver, and gold from old electronics is better for the environment than mining new materials. They also say that repairing and reusing computers and televisions has become something that is not as common in wealthier countries, and that fixing used items has helped people develop in the past.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China have found ways to get value from used goods, and in some cases, they have created billion-dollar industries by repairing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working cathode ray tubes. Repairing used items has sometimes been a problem for companies that make new products, and some people criticize the trade because of this. Books like "The Waste Makers" by Vance Packard explain some of the reasons people criticize the export of working products, such as the ban on bringing used Pentium 4 laptops into China or the rules that stop Japan from exporting used electronics.
People who are against sending used electronics to other countries say that lower standards for the environment and labor, along with cheap labor and the value of materials from old electronics, can cause pollution to move to other countries. E-waste is often sent to countries in Africa and Asia, such as China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya, sometimes without permission. Many old laptops are sent to developing countries as places to dump e-waste.
Because the United States has not agreed to the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, and because it has few laws that stop the export of dangerous waste, the Basel Action Network says that about 80% of the e-waste that is supposed to be recycled in the U.S. is not actually recycled there. Instead, it is sent by ship to countries like China. This number is not agreed upon by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.
A study by Arizona State University found that 87–88% of used computers that were imported had a price higher than the value of the materials inside them. This means that the trade in used computers is mostly about reusing them, not recycling them.
People who support the trade say that access to the internet is more closely related to the trade than poverty. Haiti is a poor country and is close to the port of New York, but more e-waste is sent from New York to Asia than to Haiti. Thousands of people in developing countries work in repairing, reusing, and recycling used electronics, jobs that are becoming less common in developed countries. If developing countries are not allowed to get used electronics, they might lose jobs, affordable products, and internet access, or they might have to deal with even less responsible suppliers. In a series of articles for The Atlantic, reporter Adam Minter from Shanghai describes many of these activities as sustainable.
People who are against the trade say that developing countries use methods that are more harmful and wasteful. One common method is to throw equipment onto an open fire to melt plastic and burn away metals. This releases dangerous chemicals into the air, creating smog that can last a long time. These harmful fumes include dioxins and furans. The waste from these fires can be quickly dumped into drainage ditches or waterways that lead to the ocean or local water supplies.
In June 2008, a container of electronic waste that was supposed to be sent from the Port of Oakland in the U.S. to Sanshui District in mainland China was stopped in Hong Kong by Greenpeace. Concerns about sending electronic waste were reported in the media in India, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria.
A study by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT) project, which was funded by the European Commission, found that in Europe, only 35% (3.3 million tons) of all e-waste thrown away in 2012 was properly collected and recycled. The other 65% (6.15 million tons) was either:
- Exported (1.5 million tons),
- Recycled in Europe under conditions that do not follow rules (3.15 million tons),
- Taken apart for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or
- Simply thrown away (750,000 tons).
Guiyu in the Guangdong region of China is a large area where e-waste is processed. It is often called the "e-waste capital of the world." In the past, Guiyu was an agricultural area, but in the mid-1990s, it became a center for recycling e-waste. More than 75% of the local households and about 100,000 migrant workers are involved in this work. Thousands of small workshops employ workers to cut cables, remove chips from circuit boards, grind plastic computer cases into small pieces, and dip circuit boards in acid to get precious metals. Others work to remove insulation from wiring to get copper. Uncontrolled burning, taking apart, and throwing away waste has caused problems like polluted groundwater, air pollution, and water pollution, especially near the coast. It has also caused health problems for people who work with the waste and those who live nearby.
Six villages in Guiyu specialize in taking apart circuit boards, seven in processing plastics and metals, and two in taking apart wires and cables. Greenpeace, an environmental group, tested dust, soil, river sediment, and groundwater in Guiyu and found very high levels of toxic metals and harmful chemicals. A Greenpeace worker named Lai Yun found "over 10 poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium."
Guiyu is just one example of places where e-waste is dumped, but similar places can be found in Nigeria, Ghana, and India.
Guiyu is likely one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste recycling sites in the world, but there are many similar places around the world, including in India, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), Nigeria, and the Philippines. Some studies have looked at the levels of exposure to harmful substances in workers who process e-waste, in the local communities, and in the environment. For example, in Delhi, a northern part of India, people search through discarded computer equipment and extract metals using dangerous and unsafe methods. In Bangalore, a city in southern India, known as the "Silicon Valley of India," there is a growing informal e-waste recycling industry. A study found that workers in slum communities had higher levels of several harmful substances compared to workers at an e-waste recycling facility.
Environmental impact
The way electronic waste is taken apart and thrown away in some countries causes several problems for the environment. Harmful substances from the waste can enter water, soil, air, and even food. These substances can harm animals, plants, and people who drink water or eat food grown in affected areas.
A study in Guiyu, China, found that:
• Airborne dioxins were found at 100 times higher levels than before.
• Levels of cancer-causing chemicals in duck ponds and rice fields were higher than allowed by international rules. Heavy metals like lead, copper, nickel, and cadmium in rice fields also exceeded these rules.
• Road dust in the area had lead levels more than 300 times higher and copper levels more than 100 times higher than in a nearby village.
In Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, electronic waste from other countries is processed in an unsafe way. This area, one of the largest e-waste sites in Africa, receives about 215,000 tons of used electronics each year, mostly from Western Europe. Because homes, businesses, and factories are close together, pollution spreads easily. Pure Earth has listed Agbogbloshie as one of the world's 10 most dangerous places due to pollution. Improper disposal of e-waste allows harmful chemicals to move through soil, water, and air, increasing the risk of harm to people and nature.
A study in Agbogbloshie found lead levels in the soil as high as 18,125 parts per million (ppm). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) allows only 400 ppm in play areas and 1200 ppm in other areas. Workers in the area often burn electronic parts to recover copper, releasing dangerous chemicals like lead, dioxins, and furans into the environment.
Researchers warn that wind in Southeast China spreads toxic particles from open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta, which has 45 million people. These chemicals enter the "soil-crop-food pathway," a major way people are exposed to heavy metals. These chemicals do not break down easily and stay in the environment for a long time, increasing risks.
In Chachoengsao, Thailand, villagers lost their main water source because of e-waste dumping. In 2017, a nearby factory began processing e-waste to recover metals like copper, silver, and gold. However, the waste also contains highly toxic substances like lead, cadmium, and mercury. A local resident reported that fumes from the factory made her feel sick and that the water became polluted. Tests found high levels of toxic metals in the area’s water. People who used water from shallow wells reported skin problems and bad smells in the water.
The chemical makeup of e-waste depends on the age and type of the item. Most e-waste contains a mix of metals like copper, aluminum, and iron. These metals may be covered with or mixed with plastics and ceramics. E-waste harms the environment, and it is important to dispose of it at an R2 certified recycling facility.
Information security
Old computer equipment that is no longer used may still hold data that was previously stored on it. This data might include private or important information for the people who used the device before. Simply deleting the data or resetting the device to its original settings may not fully remove the information. This means that some data might still be possible to recover. If not properly handled, this could allow people with bad intentions to access the information, which might lead to a situation where private data is stolen.
A plan for recycling such equipment can help protect information by making sure the right steps are taken to remove private data. These steps might include re-formatting the storage space, covering the data with random information to make it impossible to retrieve, or physically destroying the storage media, such as shredding it, to ensure all data is completely erased. For example, on many devices, simply deleting a file may not remove the data from the storage. The information could still be found and read using regular methods.
Recycling
Recycling helps reduce harmful materials from entering the environment and protects natural resources. Local governments and communities must encourage recycling. Less than 20% of electronic waste is officially recycled. Most of the remaining 80% ends up in landfills or is recycled in unsafe ways, often by hand in developing countries. This exposes workers to dangerous substances like mercury, lead, and cadmium. Even though electronic waste contains valuable materials, only a small amount is officially recycled, leading to waste.
There are three main ways to extract precious metals from electronic waste: chemical methods, high-temperature methods, and a combination of both. Each method has benefits and drawbacks, and all produce harmful waste.
Recycling printed circuit boards from electronics is a major challenge. These boards contain valuable metals like gold, silver, and platinum, as well as common metals like copper and aluminum. One way to process e-waste is by melting circuit boards, burning cables to recover copper, and using acid to separate valuable metals. Traditional methods involve shredding and separating materials, but these are not very efficient. Other methods, such as freezing to break down circuit boards, are being studied. In 2023, a new material called AF aerogel made from protein fibrils was developed to help recover gold from circuit boards.
Properly disposing of or reusing electronics can prevent health issues, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and create jobs.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages electronic recyclers to get certified by showing they meet safety and environmental standards to an independent auditor. Two certifications are currently endorsed by the EPA: Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified recyclers ensure safe handling of electronics, protect the environment, and promote reuse. These companies are regularly checked to make sure they follow strict standards.
Some U.S. retailers help consumers recycle old electronics. The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) provides a list of recycling programs that use the highest safety standards. Research shows 58% of consumers know where to recycle electronics, and the industry wants more people to be aware. Over 5,000 recycling locations exist nationwide, and the industry aims to recycle one billion pounds of electronics annually by 2016, up from 300 million pounds in 2010.
The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge, started by the EPA in 2012, involves electronics manufacturers and retailers. These companies collect used electronics and send them to certified recyclers. They can then publicly report that their recycling is fully responsible. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC) works to protect health and the environment by holding manufacturers accountable for recycling. It also provides lists of environmentally responsible recyclers. While recycling has helped recover valuable materials and reduce waste, challenges remain, such as ensuring standards are followed and managing competition. Stakeholders agree that higher standards and better systems are needed to improve recycling.
The Certified Electronics Recycler program sets strict standards for how recyclers manage electronics, focusing on quality, safety, and environmental performance. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition works to improve health and address environmental issues caused by toxic materials in technology. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) promotes better recycling practices and fair trade principles in importing countries. Take Back My TV (possibly discontinued) grades television manufacturers based on their responsibility.
Efforts have been made to highlight the dangers of e-waste dismantling in U.S. prisons. A report by the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and other groups found that inmates are often exposed to harmful conditions while handling e-waste due to poor safety standards in prisons.
In Argentina, a group called Argentina's Cyber Dumpster Divers collects e-waste and repurposes it into new items like cameras and video game consoles. This work became especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In many developed countries, electronic waste is first broken down into parts for processing.
Financial incentives for electronic waste recycling
Governments and organizations use financial incentives to encourage the correct collection, recycling, and disposal of electronic waste (e-waste). These methods aim to reduce informal recycling, increase the recovery of valuable materials, and support safe waste management practices. E-waste contains valuable metals like gold, silver, and copper, often in higher concentrations than found in natural ores. Reports show that only 22.3% of e-waste was collected and recycled globally in 2022, indicating that formal collection remains low.
Deposit–refund systems (DRS) require consumers to pay an extra cost when buying electronic devices. This cost is returned when the product is returned at the end of its life. Studies show these systems can increase return rates compared to no incentives. However, their effectiveness depends on the type of waste. For example, deposit systems for portable batteries have had limited success in improving collection rates.
Some governments give subsidies, grants, or tax benefits to certified recyclers to support formal e-waste recycling. Evidence from Taiwan shows that combining financial incentives with public education improves recycling results and reduces reliance on informal recycling. Additional research indicates that subsidies can improve the efficiency of formal e-waste recycling systems.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) holds producers financially or organizationally responsible for managing waste at the end of a product’s life. International reviews show EPR shifts waste-management costs from governments to manufacturers, encouraging better product design and take-back systems. In the European Union, EPR is enforced through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, which requires producers to fund the collection, treatment, and recycling of electronics.
Investing in e-waste treatment infrastructure, such as certified dismantling plants and collection systems, is linked to higher formal recycling rates. Regions with strong infrastructure show less reliance on informal recycling, reducing environmental and health risks from unregulated processing.
In the European Union, the WEEE Directive enforces EPR and sets legal rules for collecting, reusing, and recycling e-waste. However, evaluations show differences in how well member states implement these rules, and challenges remain in meeting recycling targets.
In the United States, e-waste policies are mostly managed by states. Some states use producer-funded take-back systems, host collection events, or offer consumer incentives like rebates to encourage formal recycling.
Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan use comprehensive EPR systems or deposit–refund programs to reduce informal recycling and improve material recovery. Studies show that formal, regulated take-back systems capture more e-waste than unregulated, informal methods.
Financial incentives can increase participation in formal e-waste collection and reduce environmental harm from informal recycling. However, challenges remain, including uneven enforcement, inadequate infrastructure, and unregulated e-waste flows that avoid formal systems.
Proper e-waste recycling helps recover valuable materials such as metals and rare earth elements, reduces the need to extract new resources, creates jobs, and supports circular-economy goals. Recycling discarded electronics turns waste into a resource, helping manage materials sustainably and reducing the environmental impact of electronics use.
Repair as waste reduction method
There are several ways to reduce the environmental problems caused by recycling electronic waste. One major issue making the e-waste problem worse is that many electronic devices stop working after a short time. Two main reasons cause this trend. First, people often buy cheap products that are not made to last long. Second, some companies encourage people to replace their devices regularly. They may do this by limiting access to repair parts, manuals, or updates, or by designing products to stop working after a certain time.
People are becoming more upset about this situation, leading to a growing movement focused on repairing items instead of throwing them away. These efforts often happen at a local level, such as through community repair events or "restart parties" organized by the Restart Project.
The "right to repair" movement in the United States began with farmers who could not fix their high-tech farming equipment because companies did not share repair information, tools, or parts. However, this movement has grown to include other areas, such as criticism of companies like Apple for limiting repair options. Companies often argue that unauthorized repairs can cause safety risks.
A simple way to reduce electronic waste is to sell or give away old electronics instead of throwing them away. Improper disposal of e-waste is becoming more dangerous as the amount of e-waste increases. Because of this, large companies like Apple and Samsung now offer recycling programs for old devices. Recycling helps reuse valuable parts inside electronics, which can save energy and reduce the need to mine new materials or create new parts. Many communities have local recycling programs that can be found by searching online, such as by typing "recycle electronics" along with the name of a city or area.
Cloud services help people store data online, making it easy to access from anywhere without needing physical storage devices. Cloud storage also provides large amounts of space at a low cost. This reduces the need to make new storage devices, which helps lower the amount of electronic waste created.
Electronic waste classification
The market offers many types of electrical products. To organize these items, it is important to group them into clear and useful categories. Classifying these products can help determine the best way to dispose of them. In general, creating these categories helps describe electronic waste. However, some classifications do not include details about products that are not harmful to the environment. At the same time, classifications should not be too broad because different countries may interpret them in various ways. The UNU-KEYs system closely follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. This is an international system used to classify goods consistently for customs purposes.
Electronic waste substances
Some parts of computers can be reused when making new computers. Other parts are broken down into metals that can be used in different things like construction, flatware, and jewelry. Materials found in large amounts include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Materials found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium. Materials found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. Common uses include:
Human health and safety
People who live near e-waste recycling sites, even if they do not work in recycling, can be exposed to environmental dangers from e-waste. This happens because they may come into contact with polluted air, water, soil, dust, or food. The main ways people are exposed are by breathing in polluted air (inhalation), eating contaminated food or water (ingestion), or touching polluted materials (dermal contact).
Studies show that people living near e-waste sites often take in more heavy metals than others, which can harm their health. Children and pregnant women are especially at risk. Health problems linked to e-waste exposure include mental health issues, trouble thinking clearly, and physical health problems. DNA damage is also more common in people exposed to e-waste than in people who are not. This damage can lead to harmful changes in genes and increase the risk of cancer. Workers who directly handle e-waste, such as by burning or breaking apart electronics, are at the highest risk because they are exposed to dangerous chemicals directly.
Prenatal exposure to e-waste can harm the health of newborns. In Guiyu, a major e-waste recycling site in China, studies found that newborns had higher levels of lead in their blood if their parents worked in e-waste recycling or lived near recycling sites during pregnancy. Higher levels of a protein called metallothionein in newborns were also linked to exposure to a harmful metal called cadmium. Exposure to another chemical, PFOA, in mothers was connected to slower growth in their babies and other health issues.
Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling (recycling done without proper safety rules) can lead to serious birth problems, such as stillbirth, low birth weight, or poor health scores at birth. These problems can also affect children’s development later in life, such as learning or behavior issues.
Children are more likely to be harmed by e-waste because of their small size, faster metabolism, and more skin contact with the environment. Studies show children living near e-waste sites face about 8 times more health risks than adult workers. For example, children in Guiyu had blood lead levels 1.5 times higher than children in areas without e-waste. The U.S. sets a safety limit of 5 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood, but levels in Guiyu were much higher. Children whose parents worked with circuit boards had the highest lead levels, while those whose parents recycled plastic had the lowest.
Exposure to e-waste can harm children’s health in many ways. Toxins like lead, mercury, and cadmium in e-waste can lower IQ, harm thinking skills, and increase cancer risk. Some studies found that children near e-waste sites had weaker lung function, trouble with blood clotting, hearing loss, and lower immunity from vaccines. For example, boys aged 8–9 years near an e-waste site had lower lung capacity and changes in body chemicals linked to nickel exposure.
The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) lists dangers for e-waste workers, such as injuries from crushing objects, exposure to harmful energy, and toxic metals. OSHA also notes that chemicals like lead, mercury, and asbestos in electronics can harm workers. In the U.S., these chemicals have safety limits set by OSHA, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
Informal e-recycling involves small workshops with little or no safety equipment, while formal e-recycling uses machines and follows safety rules. Formal facilities often sort materials and send them to other departments for further recycling. Studies in China found that workers in formal facilities had lower health risks than those in informal sites. Workers in informal recycling often use unsafe methods, like burning electronics, without protective gear. In India, studies found higher levels of certain harmful chemicals in workers at informal sites compared to formal ones.
Even in formal e-recycling, workers may still face health risks. Studies in France and Sweden found workers exposed to high levels of lead, cadmium, and other harmful chemicals. Workers in formal facilities are also more likely to be exposed to brominated flame-retardants than people in other jobs.
To protect workers, both employers and workers must take safety steps. Guidelines from the California Department of Public Health suggest ways to reduce risks for e-waste workers.
E-waste legislative frameworks
The European Union (EU) has created two laws to manage electronic waste. The first law, called the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive), was introduced in 2003. Its goal was to help member countries recycle and reuse electronic waste. This law was updated in 2008 and fully used in 2014. The second law, the RoHS Directive, was created in 2003 to limit the use of harmful materials in electronic products. It was revised in 2008 and again in 2013.
In Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia passed a law about batteries in 2010 and another about managing electronic waste in 2012. Serbia used a national waste management plan (2010–2019) to handle special waste, including electronics. Montenegro created a law in 2010 aiming to collect 4 kg of electronic waste per person each year until 2020. Albania has a draft law from 2011 focusing on designing electronic equipment. However, Bosnia and Herzegovina still lacks a law for managing electronic waste.
In Asia, Thailand banned importing electronic waste in 2020, and China did the same in 2018. These rules have had some success, but some people have found ways to avoid them.
As of 2024, 81 countries worldwide have created policies or laws to manage e-waste. However, many policies in Asia and Africa are not legally binding and are only guidelines. This makes it hard for some countries to manage e-waste properly. For example, research in the EU shows that e-waste laws may have caused more e-waste to be sent to other countries.
Solving the E-waste Problem is an organization linked to the United Nations University. It brings together experts, governments, and groups to find solutions for managing electronic waste. It encourages teamwork among all people involved in e-waste, using scientific and practical methods.
The European Commission (EC) defines electronic waste (WEEE) as waste from devices like refrigerators, TVs, and phones. In 2005, the EU estimated 9 million tons of e-waste, and by 2020, it was 12 million tons. Improper handling of e-waste can harm the environment and human health. Disposing of and making these items requires large facilities and natural resources like aluminum, gold, and copper, which can damage the environment.
The EU created two laws to manage e-waste: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive. The WEEE Directive, introduced in 2003, focused on recycling e-waste. It allowed free collection programs for consumers. The law was updated in 2008 and fully used in 2014. In 2017, the EC required member states to track and report e-waste data.
The RoHS Directive, created in 2003, limited harmful materials in electronics. It was revised in 2008 and again in 2013. In 2017, the EU updated the directive to improve safety and recycling.
Each year, the EU deals with about 800,000 tons of automotive batteries, 190,000 tons of industrial batteries, and 160,000 tons of consumer batteries. These batteries are used in many daily products. Improper disposal can release harmful materials into the environment. To address this, the EU created the Batteries Directive in 2006, which was revised in 2013. This law aims to improve battery collection, recycling, and reduce harmful materials. In 2020, the EU proposed a new rule to ensure batteries are recyclable, safe, and sustainable.