Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to electrical or electronic devices that are no longer used. It is also called waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life electronics. E-waste is one of the fastest-growing types of waste worldwide, because technology develops quickly and more people buy electronic devices. In 2022, about 62 million tons of e-waste were created globally, and only 22.3% were properly collected and recycled. By 2030, global e-waste is expected to reach 82 million tons. Used electronics that are repaired, reused, sold, or recycled for materials are also considered e-waste. In some countries, people handle e-waste without proper safety measures, which can harm people's health and pollute the environment. The increase in electronic devices, due to the Digital Revolution and new technologies like bitcoin, has created a major global e-waste problem. The fast growth of e-waste is caused by frequent new product releases, buying unnecessary devices, short product life cycles, and low recycling rates. Parts of old electronics, such as computer processors (CPUs), may contain harmful materials like lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling or disposing of e-waste can pose serious health risks to workers and their communities.
Definition
When an electronic product is no longer useful and is thrown away, it becomes electronic trash, also called e-waste. As new models of electronic products are created, older models become outdated and are often discarded. E-waste is produced in large amounts because of a society that uses many products and because technology develops quickly.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides e-waste into ten groups. These groups include used electronics that will be reused, sold, repaired, recycled, or thrown away. They also include working electronics that can be repaired and materials like copper, steel, and plastic that can be recycled. The word "waste" is used for materials that are thrown away instead of being recycled, even if they come from electronics that were reused or recycled. Some people use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" to describe all old electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which are used in older computer monitors and televisions, are among the hardest types of e-waste to recycle.
Another group, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development, divides e-waste into six categories. Electronics in each category have different lifespans, effects on the environment, and ways they are collected. About 70% of toxic waste in landfills comes from electronic waste, even though e-waste makes up only 3% of all waste in landfills.
CRTs contain high amounts of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), which are needed for the screen to work. The EPA considers old CRT monitors to be hazardous waste, but CRTs that are set aside for testing or recycling are not classified as waste if they are recycled or sent abroad for recycling under certain conditions. CRTs are sometimes confused with DLP Rear Projection TVs, which use different materials and require different recycling methods.
In the European Union, the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) is used to define hazardous electronic waste. This system is based on a European law and is adapted into laws in each member country, like the UK’s List of Wastes Directive. The EWC defines hazardous e-waste broadly (EWC Code 16 02 13*), and waste operators must follow specific rules to determine if waste is hazardous. Materials in the waste are also assessed using additional guidelines to decide if they are dangerous.
Some exporters mix hard-to-recycle, old, or broken electronics with working equipment to save money on separation and recycling costs. Others may expand the definition of "waste" to protect local markets from used electronics sold abroad.
Recycling working electronics, such as laptops, desktops, and parts like RAM, can help pay for transporting less valuable items. A 2011 study in Ghana found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported, 30% were new and 70% were used. Of the used electronics, 15% were not reused and were discarded. This is different from unverified claims that 80% of imports were burned in unsafe conditions.
Bitcoin, a type of digital currency, creates large amounts of e-waste. As of May 2021, Bitcoin production generated about 30.7 metric kilotons of e-waste, similar to the amount produced by a small country like Denmark. This has raised questions about whether Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are environmentally sustainable.
Quantity
E-waste is the fastest-growing type of waste in the world. A 2024 study found that about 62 million tons of e-waste are created each year worldwide. Only 22.3% of this waste is officially collected and recycled. The rest is often handled in informal ways in developing countries, which can harm people's health and the environment. About $62 billion worth of valuable materials are lost each year because not enough e-waste is properly recycled.
Fast changes in technology, new products, lower prices, and planned obsolescence—where products are designed to stop working after a short time—have caused more e-waste. Circular solutions, which reuse materials, are rare. Before technical solutions can work, legal rules, collection systems, and other services must be set up.
Parts of electronics, like display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory (DRAM or SRAM), and audio components, have different lifespans. Processors often become outdated because software no longer works with them. Display units are usually replaced even if they still work, because people want new technology. This problem could be solved with modular smartphones, like the Phonebloks idea. These phones allow users to replace broken parts instead of throwing away the whole device, which reduces e-waste. About 50 million tons of e-waste are made each year. The USA throws away 30 million computers yearly, and 100 million phones are discarded in Europe each year. Only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, with the rest going to landfills or incinerators.
A 2023 report said improper e-waste disposal contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental issues. E-waste contains both harmful and valuable materials. It includes heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel, as well as chemicals like flame retardants and dioxins. These can pollute the environment if not handled safely. Up to 60 different elements can be found in electronics. Metals like copper, aluminum, iron, gold, silver, and palladium are more concentrated in e-waste than in typical ores. Apple sold over 796 million iDevices by 2013. Some companies make phones that break easily so people will buy new ones. In the USA, about 70% of heavy metals in landfills come from old electronics.
There is agreement that more electronic devices are being thrown away, but opinions differ about how risky this is compared to other waste, like car parts. Some say stopping the trade of used electronics could make things worse by removing honest businesses from the market.
In 2016, Asia had the most e-waste (18.2 million tons), followed by Europe (12.3 million tons), the Americas (11.3 million tons), Africa (2.2 million tons), and Oceania (0.7 million tons). Oceania had the highest e-waste per person (17.3 kg), but only 6% was collected and recycled. Europe had the second-highest per-person e-waste (16.6 kg) but collected 35% of it. The Americas generated 11.6 kg per person and collected 17% of e-waste, similar to Asia (15%). Africa produced the least e-waste per person (1.9 kg), but data on collection is limited.
In 2019, 53.6 million tons of e-waste were made globally, with an average of 7.3 kg per person. This is expected to grow to 74 million tons by 2030. Asia still produces the most e-waste (24.9 million tons), followed by the Americas (13.1 million tons), Europe (12 million tons), and Africa and Oceania (2.9 million and 0.7 million tons, respectively). Europe had the highest recycling rate (42.5%), followed by Asia (11.7%). Africa had the lowest recycling rate (0.9%). Only 9.3% of global e-waste was officially collected and recycled, with the fate of 44.3% unknown.
In 2021, about 57.4 million tons of e-waste were made. In Europe, 11 out of 72 electronic items in an average home are broken or not used. Each person in Europe also keeps 4–5 kg of unused electronics at home yearly.
Global trade issues
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One theory is that more rules about electronic waste and worry about the harm it causes to the environment in poorer countries makes it less financially beneficial to clean up waste before sending it abroad. People who are against the trade in used electronics say it is still too easy for people who claim to be recyclers to send unsorted electronic waste to developing countries, such as China, India, and parts of Africa. This avoids the cost of removing harmful parts, like broken cathode ray tubes, which are expensive and hard to process. These developing countries have become places where large amounts of e-waste are dumped. Even though these countries often try to repair and recycle used equipment, in 2003, 90% of e-waste still ended up in landfills there. Supporters of international trade point to the success of fair trade programs in other industries, where working together has helped create jobs and brought affordable technology to countries where repair and reuse rates are higher.
People who support the trade in used electronics say that the mining of metals from new sources has moved to developing countries. Recycling metals like copper, silver, and gold from old electronic devices is better for the environment than mining. They also say that repairing and reusing computers and televisions has become a skill that is not used much in wealthier nations and that refurbishing has helped development in the past.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China have found ways to keep value in used goods and have created large industries in refurbishing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally been a threat to traditional manufacturing, and some criticism of the trade comes from protectionism. Books like "The Waste Makers" by Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exporting working products, such as the ban on importing tested working Pentium 4 laptops to China or the bans on exporting used surplus working electronics by Japan.
People who are against the export of surplus electronics say that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the high value of recovered materials lead to moving pollution-causing activities, like smelting copper wire, to other countries. Electronic waste is often sent to countries like China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya for processing, sometimes illegally. Many used laptops are sent to developing countries as places to dump e-waste.
Because the United States has not agreed to the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment and has few federal laws stopping the export of toxic waste, the Basel Action Network estimates that about 80% of electronic waste sent for recycling in the U.S. is not recycled there but is instead shipped to countries like China. This number is disputed by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.
Research by Arizona State University found that 87–88% of imported used computers were priced higher than the value of the materials they contained, showing that the trade in used computers is mainly driven by reuse rather than recycling.
Supporters of the trade say that the growth of internet access is more closely linked to trade than poverty. Haiti is poor and closer to the port of New York than southeast Asia, but more electronic waste is exported from New York to Asia than to Haiti. Thousands of people in developing countries are employed in reuse, refurbishing, repair, and re-manufacturing, which are industries that are declining in developed countries. Denying developing countries access to used electronics might take away opportunities for sustainable jobs, affordable products, and internet access, or force them to deal with even less responsible suppliers. In a series of articles for The Atlantic, reporter Adam Minter describes many of these computer repair and scrap separation activities as objectively sustainable.
People who are against the trade say that developing countries use methods that are more harmful and wasteful. One common method is to throw equipment into an open fire to melt plastics and burn away non-valuable metals. This releases harmful chemicals into the air, causing smog. These fumes include dioxins and furans. The waste from these fires is often quickly thrown into drainage ditches or waterways that lead to the ocean or local water supplies.
In June 2008, a container of electronic waste that was supposed to be sent from the Port of Oakland in the U.S. to Sanshui District in mainland China was stopped in Hong Kong by Greenpeace. Concerns about the export of electronic waste were raised in press reports in India, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria.
Research by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT) project, funded by the European Commission, found that in Europe only 35% (3.3 million tons) of all e-waste discarded in 2012 was officially collected and recycled. The other 65% (6.15 million tons) was either:
- Exported (1.5 million tons),
- Recycled under non-compliant conditions in Europe (3.15 million tons),
- Scavenged for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or
- Simply thrown in waste bins (750,000 tons).
Guiyu in the Guangdong region of China is a large electronic waste processing area. It is often called the "e-waste capital of the world." Guiyu used to be an agricultural community, but in the mid-1990s it became an e-waste recycling center involving over 75% of local households and an additional 100,000 migrant workers. Thousands of small workshops employ workers to cut cables, remove chips from circuit boards, grind plastic computer cases into particles, and dip circuit boards in acid baths to dissolve the precious metals. Others work to remove insulation from wiring to get small amounts of copper wire. Uncontrolled burning, disassembly, and disposal have caused environmental problems such as groundwater contamination, air pollution, and water pollution, as well as health problems for those involved in processing the waste.
Six of the many villages in Guiyu specialize in circuit-board disassembly, seven in plastics and metals reprocessing, and two in wire and cable disassembly. Greenpeace, an environmental group, sampled dust, soil, river sediment, and groundwater in Guiyu. They found very high levels of toxic heavy metals and organic contaminants. Lai Yun, a campaigner for the group, found "over 10 poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium."
Guiyu is just one example of digital dumps, but similar places can be found across the world in Nigeria, Ghana, and India.
Guiyu is likely one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste recycling sites in the world, but there are many similar sites worldwide, including in India, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), Nigeria, and the Philippines. There are a few studies that describe the levels of exposure in e-waste workers, the community, and the environment. For example, locals and migrant workers in Delhi, a northern region of India, scavenge discarded computer equipment and extract base metals using toxic, unsafe methods. Bangalore, located in southern India, is often referred to as the "Silicon Valley of India" and has a growing informal e-waste recycling sector. A study found that e-waste workers in the slum community had higher levels of V, Cr, Mn, Mo, Sn, Tl, and Pb than workers at an e-waste re.
Environmental impact
The process of taking apart and throwing away old electronics in developing countries has caused harm to the environment. Chemicals and harmful gases from this process enter water, soil, air, and plants. These pollutants can affect animals, plants, and people who drink water or eat food grown in polluted areas.
A study in Guiyu, China showed serious pollution problems:
– Air pollution included dioxins, which were 100 times higher than levels measured before.
– Poisonous chemicals in duck ponds and rice fields were above safe limits. Heavy metals like lead, copper, nickel, and cadmium in rice fields also exceeded international safety standards.
– Road dust in the area had lead levels more than 300 times higher than in a control village and copper levels more than 100 times higher.
In Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, e-waste pollution affects nearly everyone. Each year, about 215,000 tons of used electronics from Western Europe are sent to this area, which is one of the largest informal e-waste sites in Africa. Because homes, businesses, and industries are mixed together, this area is ranked among the world's 10 most dangerous places for toxic pollution. Improper disposal of e-waste releases harmful chemicals into soil, water, and air, spreading pollution through many paths and increasing risks for both people and nature.
A study in Agbogbloshie found soil lead levels as high as 18,125 parts per million (ppm). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets limits of 400 ppm for play areas and 1200 ppm for other areas. Workers at the site burn electronic parts and wires to recover copper, releasing toxic chemicals like lead, dioxins, and furans into the environment.
Researchers like Brett Robinson, a professor at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warn that wind in Southeast China spreads toxic particles from open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta, where 45 million people live. These chemicals enter the "soil-crop-food pathway," a major way people are exposed to heavy metals. These chemicals do not break down easily and stay in the environment for long periods, increasing risks.
In Chachoengsao, a region near Bangkok, villagers lost their main water source because of e-waste dumping. In 2017, a Chinese-run factory started recycling e-waste like broken computers and cables to extract valuable metals such as copper, silver, and gold. However, these items also contain highly toxic substances like lead, cadmium, and mercury. A local resident reported that noxious fumes from processing made her feel faint and that water from nearby wells became polluted. Tests found high levels of iron, manganese, lead, nickel, and sometimes arsenic and cadmium in the water. People who used the polluted water reported skin problems and foul smells.
The chemical makeup of e-waste depends on the age and type of the discarded item. Most e-waste contains metals like copper, aluminum, and iron, often mixed with plastics or ceramics. E-waste harms the environment, and it is important to dispose of it at an R2 certified recycling facility.
Information security
Old computers and other data processing devices that are no longer used might still have readable information that was important to the people who used them before. Simply deleting the data or resetting the device to its original settings might not fully remove the information. This means that the data could still be found by people who act dishonestly or harmfully, which might lead to a data breach.
A plan for recycling these devices can help protect information security by making sure the right steps are taken to remove private information. These steps might include formatting the storage space again, filling it with random numbers or letters to make the data impossible to find, or physically destroying the storage media by shredding it to completely erase all information. For example, on many computer systems, deleting a file might not actually remove the file’s data from the storage, which could allow someone to find it using regular methods.
Recycling
Recycling helps reduce harmful materials entering the environment and prevents the loss of natural resources. Local governments and communities must encourage recycling. Less than 20% of electronic waste is officially recycled, with 80% ending up in landfills or being informally recycled. Much of this informal recycling happens in developing countries, where workers handle waste by hand and are exposed to dangerous substances like mercury, lead, and cadmium. Even though electronic waste contains valuable materials, only a small amount is officially recycled, which is a waste of resources.
There are three main ways to recover precious metals from electronic waste: chemical methods, high-temperature methods, and a combination of both. Each method has benefits and drawbacks, and all produce harmful waste.
One major challenge is recycling printed circuit boards from electronic devices. These boards contain valuable metals like gold, silver, and platinum, as well as common metals like copper, iron, and aluminum. One way to process e-waste is by melting circuit boards, burning cables to recover copper, and using acid to separate valuable metals. Traditional methods involve shredding and sorting waste, but these methods are not very efficient. Scientists are studying new methods, like freezing materials to break them apart, for recycling circuit boards. In 2023, a new material called AF aerogel, made with protein fibrils, was developed to help extract gold from circuit boards.
Properly recycling or reusing electronics can help avoid health problems, reduce pollution, and create jobs.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages electronics recyclers to get certified by showing they meet strict safety standards to an independent auditor. Certification ensures recycling is done safely and responsibly. Two EPA-approved certifications exist: Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified recyclers follow strict rules to reuse materials, protect health, and manage waste safely. These companies are regularly checked to ensure they meet high standards.
Some U.S. stores offer programs for customers to recycle old electronics. The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) helps people find certified recycling locations through its website. These locations use the strictest safety rules. Research shows 58% of people know where to recycle electronics, and the industry wants more people to be aware. Over 5,000 recycling locations across the U.S. are operated by manufacturers and retailers, and the industry aims to recycle 1 billion pounds of electronics annually by 2016, up from 300 million pounds in 2010.
The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge, started by the EPA in 2012, involves electronics manufacturers and retailers. These companies collect old electronics and send them to certified recyclers. They can then publicly report that their recycling is fully responsible. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC) works to protect health and reduce environmental harm by holding manufacturers accountable for recycling. It also provides lists of certified recyclers. While recycling has improved, challenges remain, such as ensuring recycling rules are followed and managing waste that has value. Experts believe better accountability and competition can improve recycling systems.
The Certified Electronics Recycler program sets standards for safe and efficient recycling. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on health and environmental justice issues caused by technology. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) works to improve recycling practices in countries that import electronics. Take Back My TV, a project by the ETBC, evaluates television companies to determine which are responsible.
Efforts have been made to highlight the dangers of recycling e-waste in U.S. prisons. A report by the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and others shows that inmates in prisons are sometimes forced to handle e-waste under unsafe conditions, leading to health risks.
In Argentina, a group called Argentina's Cyber Dumpster Divers collects e-waste from streets and repurposes it into new items like cameras and video game consoles. This work became especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In many developed countries, electronic waste is first broken down into parts for recycling.
Financial incentives for electronic waste recycling
Governments and organizations use financial incentives to encourage people to properly collect, recycle, and dispose of electronic waste (e-waste). These methods aim to reduce unregulated recycling, recover valuable materials, and support safe waste management. E-waste contains valuable metals like gold, silver, and copper, often in higher amounts than found in natural ores. Reports show that only 22.3% of global e-waste was collected and recycled in 2022, with most remaining uncollected.
Deposit–refund systems (DRS) require buyers to pay an extra cost when purchasing electronics, which is returned when the product is returned at the end of its life. Studies suggest these systems can increase return rates compared to no incentives. However, their success depends on the type of waste; for example, deposit systems for portable batteries have had limited success in improving collection rates.
Some governments give money to certified recyclers through subsidies, grants, or tax breaks to support formal e-waste recycling. In Taiwan, combining financial help with public education has improved recycling results and reduced reliance on unregulated recycling. Research shows subsidies can improve the efficiency of formal systems that handle used electronics.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) means companies are financially or organizationally responsible for managing their products’ waste at the end of their life. International reviews show EPR shifts waste management costs from governments to manufacturers, encouraging better product design and take-back systems. In the European Union, EPR is enforced through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, which requires companies to fund the collection, treatment, and recycling of electronics.
Investing in e-waste treatment infrastructure, such as certified dismantling plants and collection systems, improves formal recycling rates. Areas with strong infrastructure rely less on unregulated recycling, reducing environmental and health risks.
In the European Union, the WEEE Directive enforces EPR and sets legal rules for collecting, reusing, and recycling e-waste. However, member states vary in how well they follow these rules, and meeting recycling targets remains a challenge.
In the United States, e-waste policies are managed at the state level. Some states use producer-funded take-back systems or organize collection events, and offer rebates or vouchers to encourage recycling.
Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan use EPR or deposit–refund systems to reduce unregulated recycling and improve material recovery. Studies show formal, regulated take-back systems collect more waste than unregulated methods.
Financial incentives can increase participation in formal e-waste collection and reduce harm from unregulated recycling. However, challenges remain: rules and enforcement vary, infrastructure may be lacking, and some e-waste still avoids formal systems.
Proper e-waste recycling helps recover valuable materials like metals and rare earth elements, reduces the need to extract new resources, creates jobs, and supports circular economy goals. Recycling turns old electronics into reusable resources, helping manage materials sustainably and reducing the environmental impact of using electronics.
Repair as waste reduction method
There are several ways to reduce the dangers to the environment caused by recycling electronic waste. One problem that makes the e-waste issue worse is that many electrical and electronic products are being used for shorter periods of time. Two main reasons explain this trend. First, people often prefer buying cheap products, which can lead to lower quality and shorter product lifetimes. Second, some companies encourage people to replace their devices regularly. This can happen by limiting access to spare parts, repair guides, or software updates, or by designing products to stop working after a short time.
Because of these issues, more people are trying to fix broken electronics instead of throwing them away. These repair efforts often happen at the community level, such as through repair cafés or events called "restart parties" organized by the Restart Project.
In the United States, the "right to repair" movement is led by farmers who cannot easily fix their high-tech farming equipment because they lack repair information, tools, or spare parts. However, this movement also affects other areas, such as when companies like Apple limit repair options for their products. Companies often argue that allowing repairs by untrained people could cause safety problems.
One simple way to reduce e-waste is to sell or give away old electronics instead of throwing them away. Improperly disposing of e-waste is becoming more dangerous as the amount of e-waste grows. Because of this, large companies like Apple and Samsung now offer recycling programs for old electronics. Recycling helps reuse valuable parts inside devices. This can save energy and reduce the need to mine new raw materials or create new parts. Many communities have electronic recycling programs that can be found online by searching for "recycle electronics" along with the name of the city or area.
Cloud services help people store data online, making it possible to access files from anywhere without needing physical storage devices. Cloud storage also provides large amounts of space at low cost. This reduces the need to make new storage devices, which helps lower the amount of e-waste created.
Electronic waste classification
The market offers many types of electrical products. To organize these items, they should be grouped into clear and useful categories. These categories can help decide how to properly dispose of the products. Creating these groups helps explain what e-waste is. However, these groups do not include specific details about products that are not harmful to the environment. At the same time, the groups should not be too general because different countries may interpret them differently. The UNU-KEYs system uses the harmonized statistical (HS) coding, which is a standard system used worldwide for customs purposes. This system is an international method that combines different ways to classify items so they can be grouped consistently.
Electronic waste substances
Some parts of computers can be reused when making new computer products. Other parts are broken down into metals that can be used in different areas like building, eating utensils, and jewelry. Materials found in large amounts include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Materials found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium. Materials found in very small amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. The following are common uses:
Human health and safety
People who live near e-waste recycling sites, even if they do not work with e-waste, may face health risks from pollution in food, water, and the environment. This happens because they can come into contact with polluted air, water, soil, dust, and food. There are three main ways people are exposed: breathing in polluted air, eating contaminated food or water, and touching polluted materials.
Studies show that people living near e-waste sites often have higher levels of harmful metals in their bodies. Children and pregnant women are especially at risk. Health problems linked to e-waste exposure include mental health issues, learning difficulties, and physical health problems. DNA damage is more common in people exposed to e-waste than in people who are not. This damage can increase the risk of cancer or other health issues. Workers who directly handle e-waste, such as by breaking apart devices, burning materials, or using strong chemicals, are at the greatest risk because they are exposed to harmful substances directly.
Prenatal exposure to e-waste can harm the health of newborns. In Guiyu, a major e-waste recycling area in China, higher lead levels in newborns were linked to parents working with e-waste and the time mothers spent in Guiyu during pregnancy. Newborns from Guiyu also had higher levels of a protein that shows exposure to toxic metals, which was connected to exposure to cadmium. High levels of another harmful chemical, PFOA, in mothers were linked to slower growth in their babies and other health issues.
Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling has also been linked to poor birth outcomes, such as stillbirth, low birth weight, and low Apgar scores. These effects can also lead to long-term problems like learning and behavior issues in children later in life.
Children are more vulnerable to e-waste exposure because they are smaller, have faster body processes, and have more skin area compared to their weight. They also absorb harmful substances through their skin, by putting their hands in their mouths, or by bringing home polluted materials. Studies show children in e-waste areas have about eight times the health risk of adult workers. For example, one study found that children in Guiyu had blood lead levels nearly 1.5 times higher than children in areas without e-waste. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) considers blood lead levels above 5 μg/dL as a health concern.
Exposure to e-waste can harm children’s health in many ways. Harmful substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium in e-waste can increase the risk of lower intelligence, learning problems, and cancer. Some studies also found that children in e-waste areas had weaker lungs, trouble with blood clotting, hearing loss, and lower immune responses to vaccines. For example, boys aged 8–9 years exposed to nickel in e-waste had weaker lung function and changes in their body’s ability to fight stress.
The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) lists dangers for e-waste workers, such as injuries from crushing objects, exposure to harmful energy, and contact with toxic metals. OSHA also identifies harmful chemicals in electronics, including lead, mercury, and asbestos. These chemicals have safety limits set by OSHA, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
Informal e-recycling refers to small workshops that often lack safety equipment or automation. Formal e-recycling uses machines and follows safety rules, such as using pollution controls and protective gear. Formal facilities may sort materials from e-waste and send them to other departments for further recycling.
Studies in China suggest that workers in formal recycling facilities in Jiangsu and Shanghai have lower health risks than workers in informal sites in Guiyu. Informal workers face greater risks because they use unsafe methods, such as burning or breaking apart e-waste, without protective equipment. In India, workers at a formal recycling facility had higher levels of some metals in their hair than workers in informal slum areas, but workers in slum areas had higher levels of other harmful chemicals.
Even in formal recycling, workers may face risks. Studies in France and Sweden found that workers had higher exposure to lead, cadmium, and other harmful substances than recommended levels. Workers in formal facilities also had higher exposure to chemicals used in electronics, such as brominated flame retardants.
To protect workers, both employers and workers should follow safety rules. Guidelines from the California Department of Public Health suggest steps to reduce health risks for e-waste workers.
E-waste legislative frameworks
The European Union (EU) has created two laws to manage electronic waste. The first law, called the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive), started in 2003. This law aimed to help member countries recycle and reuse electronic waste. It was updated in 2008 and became effective in 2014. The EU also passed another law in 2003, called the Directive on the restriction of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. This law was revised in 2012.
In the Western Balkans, North Macedonia made a law about batteries in 2010 and a law about managing electronic waste in 2012. Serbia created a national waste management plan from 2010 to 2019 to handle special waste, including electronic waste. Montenegro passed a law in 2010 that aims to collect 4 kilograms of electronic waste per person each year until 2020. Albania has a draft law from 2011 that focuses on designing electronic equipment. However, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not yet have a law to manage electronic waste.
In Asia, countries like Thailand and China have taken steps to stop importing electronic waste. Thailand banned all electronic waste imports in 2020, and China did the same in 2018. While these actions have helped, some people have found ways to avoid these rules.
As of 2024, 81 countries worldwide have created policies or laws to manage electronic waste. However, many of these policies are not legally required and are only guidelines. This makes it harder for some countries to manage electronic waste properly. For example, in the EU, research has shown that laws about electronic waste have led to more electronic waste being sent to other countries.
Solving the E-waste Problem is an organization part of the United Nations University. It works with companies, governments, and other groups to find solutions for electronic waste. It encourages all groups involved to work together to address the issue in a scientific and practical way.
The European Commission (EC) defines electronic waste as materials from devices like refrigerators, televisions, and mobile phones. In 2005, the EU estimated that 9 million tons of electronic waste were produced. By 2020, this number had risen to 12 million tons. If not handled properly, electronic waste can harm the environment and cause serious health problems. Disposing of and making these products requires large facilities and natural resources like aluminum, gold, and copper, which can damage the environment.
To manage electronic waste, the EU created two laws: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive. The WEEE Directive was introduced in 2003 to help recycle electronic waste. It allowed free collection programs for consumers. The law was revised in 2008 and updated again in 2012, becoming effective in 2014. In 2017, the EC added new rules to track the amount of electronic waste produced by each country.
The RoHS Directive, introduced in 2003, limits the use of harmful materials like lead and mercury in electronic products. It was revised in 2008 and again in 2013. In 2017, the EC made changes to the law to improve its effectiveness.
Each year, the EU handles about 800,000 tons of automotive batteries, 190,000 tons of industrial batteries, and 160,000 tons of consumer batteries. These batteries are used in many everyday items. If not collected and recycled properly, harmful materials from batteries can pollute the environment and water sources. Many parts of batteries can be recycled safely. To manage this, the EU created the Batteries Directive, which aims to improve battery collection and recycling. This law also stops the production and sale of batteries that contain harmful materials. A new law, the Batteries Regulation, was proposed in 2020 to ensure batteries sold in the EU are safe, recyclable, and sustainable.
In 2006, the EU passed the Batteries Directive, which was updated in 2013. This law covers the collection, recycling, and labeling of batteries. A review of this law can be found in official reports.