An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle powered mainly by electricity. EVs include road vehicles like cars, buses, trucks, and personal transporters, rail vehicles such as trains, trams, and monorails, boats and submersibles, aircraft like fixed-wing planes and multirotors, and spacecraft.

Electric vehicles first appeared in the late 19th century. Early motor vehicles often used electricity because it was quiet, comfortable, and easy to operate. However, the limited distance EVs could travel stopped them from becoming widely used during the 20th century. For about 100 years, internal combustion engines were the main way to power cars and trucks. However, electricity was commonly used for other vehicles, such as trains powered by overhead lines and special vehicles like mobility scooters.

Since the late 20th century, improvements in lithium batteries—better at storing energy and providing power than older lead-acid batteries—have increased public interest in EVs as zero-emission vehicles. Many manufacturers began making hybrid vehicles that use both internal combustion engines and electric motors, with electricity generated by motor-generators and recovered from braking. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, which can be charged from the electric grid and use electric motors as their main power source, were not widely produced until the late 2000s. Battery electric cars became practical for consumers only in the 2010s. While spacecraft have used electricity for propulsion since the 1960s, launching spacecraft without rockets from Earth is still science fiction.

Advances in EV batteries, electric motors, and automotive electronics, especially control systems, have made electric cars more practical and, in some cases, less expensive than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles during the 21st century. In some countries, such as China, nearly half of all new vehicles sold are electric. Governments in many areas offer support to help people buy electric vehicles, aiming to reduce pollution and dependence on fossil fuels. As of 2026, China’s electric vehicle industry produces more electric vehicles than all other countries combined.

History

In January 1990, the president of General Motors introduced a two-person electric car called the "Impact" at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board required major car companies to sell electric vehicles in stages starting in 1998. Between 1996 and 1998, General Motors built 1,117 EV1s. Of these, 800 were available for three-year leases.

During this time, Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, and Toyota also made limited numbers of electric vehicles for drivers in California. In 2003, when the leases for GM’s EV1s ended, the company stopped producing them. Reasons for this included: a court decision that challenged California’s rule requiring zero-emission vehicles, a federal rule requiring GM to keep spare parts for the few thousand EV1s, and the success of a campaign by the oil and auto industries to reduce public support for electric cars.

A movie titled Who Killed the Electric Car? was made in 2005–2006 and released in 2006. It examined the roles of car companies, the oil industry, the U.S. government, battery technology, hydrogen vehicles, and the public in slowing the use of electric vehicles.

Ford sold some of its Ford Ecostar delivery vans. Honda, Nissan, and Toyota also took back and crushed most of their electric vehicles, which had only been available through closed-end leases. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs, which later sold for more than their original $40,000 price. Later, BMW of Canada sold some Mini EVs after their testing in Canada ended.

Production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique ended in September 2005. Zenn started making electric cars in 2006 but stopped in 2009.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, concerns about the environmental harm caused by oil-based transportation and fears about running out of oil led to renewed interest in electric vehicles. By the 21st century, using electricity instead of burning fuel became seen as important for health and the environment. Electric vehicles differ from gas-powered cars because the electricity they use can come from many sources, such as fossil fuels, nuclear power, or renewable energy like solar or wind power. Recent improvements in battery technology and charging systems have helped overcome earlier problems, making electric vehicles more practical for more people.

The environmental impact of electric vehicles depends on how electricity is generated. Electricity can be stored in a vehicle’s battery, flywheel, or supercapacitor. Gas-powered cars usually rely on non-renewable fossil fuels. A key benefit of electric vehicles is regenerative braking, which captures energy usually lost as heat during braking and stores it as electricity in the battery. In 2024, over 20% of new cars sold were electric, but only 2% of trucks were. China is the world’s largest producer of electric vehicles, making more than 70% of all electric cars globally and selling 67% of them in 2024.

Electricity sources

Electric vehicles (EVs) use energy more efficiently than cars with traditional gasoline engines and produce little pollution directly from the vehicle. However, they depend on electricity, which is usually generated from a mix of power sources, including both renewable energy (like wind or solar) and traditional energy (like coal or natural gas).

Electricity can be made in many ways, each with different costs, efficiency, and environmental impact. EVs can become less harmful to the environment if the electricity they use comes from renewable sources. In some places, people can request their electricity providers to use more renewable energy. This helps increase energy resilience, or the ability to keep power supplies stable.

Some EVs are connected directly to the electric grid, like electric trains, trams, and trolleybuses. Others, such as online electric vehicles, collect power from wires buried under roads using electromagnetic induction.

Some EVs generate electricity on the vehicle itself:
– Using a diesel engine: diesel–electric locomotives and diesel–electric multiple units (DEMU)
– Using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicles
– Using nuclear power: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers
– Using renewable energy like solar power: solar vehicles

Hybrid EVs can use electricity from multiple sources, such as:
– A rechargeable battery and a direct connection to power plants for long-distance travel
– A rechargeable battery and a traditional engine (like a gasoline engine): plug-in hybrid vehicles

For very large EVs, like submarines, the energy from diesel engines can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The reactor produces heat, which turns water into steam to power a turbine and generator, which then provides energy for movement. This is called nuclear marine propulsion.

Some experimental vehicles, like certain cars and a few aircraft, use solar panels to generate electricity. These systems receive power from an external generator (usually when the vehicle is not moving), store it in the vehicle, and use it later.

Types of full electric vehicles (FEVs) include:
– Chemical energy stored in on-board batteries: Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), often using lithium-ion batteries
– Kinetic energy stored in spinning wheels: flywheels
– Static energy stored in on-board electric double-layer capacitors

Batteries, capacitors, and flywheels are all examples of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. These systems avoid extra steps in energy conversion, making them more efficient than hybrids. Additionally, batteries can store and release energy easily through chemical reactions.

Components

The type of battery, traction motor, and motor controller design depends on the size, power, and intended use of the vehicle. These can range from small devices like motorized shopping carts or wheelchairs to larger vehicles such as electric motorcycles, scooters, neighborhood electric cars, industrial forklifts, and hybrid vehicles.

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) powers the propulsion system of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). These batteries are typically rechargeable secondary batteries, most commonly lithium-ion batteries. Traction batteries, which are designed to store large amounts of electrical energy, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.

Most battery-electric vehicles also include a separate low-voltage auxiliary battery, usually a 12-volt system, to power accessories and control electronics. This battery is often charged by the high-voltage traction battery through a DC/DC converter. If the auxiliary battery charging system fails, the vehicle may not operate even if the traction battery is fully charged. In 2024, Hyundai and Kia issued recalls due to failures in the Integrated Charging Control Unit (ICCU), which could stop charging the 12-volt battery and cause the vehicle to lose power.

Lithium-ion batteries have been used in electric vehicles since 1991 and are now a key technology for low-carbon transportation. Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion or LIBs) because they have high energy density, long lifespans, and high power density. However, challenges such as safety, durability, thermal breakdown, environmental impact, and cost must be managed. Lithium-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Extending the lifespan of a battery reduces costs and environmental impact. One method to achieve this is by using only a portion of the battery cells at a time and switching between these portions.

In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors. These batteries are now outdated because they tend to lose charge quickly in hot conditions. A patent held by Chevron also limited their development. Due to their high cost and these issues, lithium-ion batteries are now the most common type used in electric vehicles.

Lithium-ion battery prices have dropped significantly over the past decade, helping reduce the cost of electric vehicles. However, the price of critical minerals like lithium increased from 2021 to 2022, slowing the decline in battery prices.

The power of a vehicle’s electric motor is measured in kilowatts (kW). Unlike internal combustion engines, electric motors can deliver maximum torque across a wide range of speeds. This means a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor performs better than a vehicle with a 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver maximum torque within a limited speed range.

Charging efficiency varies depending on the charger type, and energy is lost during the conversion from electrical energy to mechanical energy. Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is sent to a DC/AC inverter, which converts it to alternating current (AC) electricity. This AC electricity is then used to power a 3-phase AC motor.

For electric trains, forklift trucks, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors can be used with either AC or DC power. Modern vehicles may use different motor types, such as induction motors in Tesla vehicles or permanent magnet motors in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.

Electric motors are mechanically simple and can achieve up to 90% energy conversion efficiency across all speeds and power levels. They can also be precisely controlled.

Motion is created by a rotary electric motor. In some cases, the motor is "unrolled" to directly drive a special track, forming a linear motor. These are used in maglev trains, which float above the rails using magnetic levitation. This design reduces rolling resistance and mechanical wear but makes track switching and curving difficult, limiting their use to high-speed, point-to-point services.

Electric traction systems allow regenerative braking, where the motor acts as a generator to convert the vehicle’s motion into electricity, which is then returned to the power system. This is especially useful in mountainous areas or city traffic, where descending vehicles can provide energy for ascending ones. However, this system works only if the power network is large enough to use the generated electricity.

Electric motors can produce high torque from a standstill and do not require multiple gears or gearboxes to match power output. This eliminates the need for gearboxes and torque converters.

Electric vehicles operate quietly and smoothly, producing less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines. This can be a safety concern because the lack of engine noise may make it harder for blind, elderly, or young pedestrians to hear approaching vehicles. To address this, many countries require EVs to emit warning sounds when moving slowly until natural noises from the vehicle become audible.

Unlike internal combustion engines, electric motors do not require oxygen to operate. This makes them suitable for use in submarines and space rovers.

Types

It is possible to add an electric power system to most types of vehicles.

A pure-electric vehicle, or all-electric vehicle, uses only electric motors for power. The electricity can come from a battery (called a battery electric vehicle), solar panels (solar vehicle), or a fuel cell (fuel cell vehicle).

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines a traditional gasoline engine with one or more electric motors. This setup helps improve fuel efficiency or acceleration compared to regular vehicles. There are many types of HEVs, and how much they rely on electric power varies. The most common HEVs are hybrid cars, but hybrids are also used in trucks, buses, boats, and planes.

Modern HEVs use technology to save energy, such as regenerative braking, which turns the car’s movement into electricity stored in a battery. Some HEVs use a gasoline engine to power a generator that either charges the battery or directly powers the wheels. This is called a range extender. Many HEVs also shut off the gasoline engine when the car is stopped, like at a traffic light, to reduce pollution. Hybrid systems usually produce less pollution than regular gasoline cars because the engine is smaller and more efficient.

Hybrid vehicles can combine power from the electric motor and gasoline engine in different ways. The most common type is a parallel hybrid, where both the engine and motor are connected directly to the wheels. Series hybrids use only the electric motor to power the wheels and are sometimes called extended-range electric vehicles. Series-parallel hybrids can use the engine alone, the motor alone, or both together to keep the engine running efficiently.

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) can be charged using an external power source, like a wall outlet. PEVs include battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), and converted hybrids or gasoline cars.

A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) uses an electric motor and battery, with a small gasoline engine that only helps charge the battery, not power the wheels directly.

Electric vehicles used on roads include cars, buses, trucks, bicycles, motorcycles, scooters, and forklifts. Off-road electric vehicles include all-terrain vehicles and tractors.

An electric truck is a battery-powered vehicle designed to carry goods or perform work. Electric trucks have been used for tasks like delivering milk and moving cargo for over 100 years, often with lead-acid batteries. Newer battery technologies have made electric trucks more useful for a wider range of jobs.

Electric trucks are quieter and cleaner than traditional trucks. They are also cheaper to own and operate because they use energy efficiently, don’t need fuel when stopped, and accelerate smoothly.

Long-distance trucking is harder to electrify because batteries are heavy, reducing the space for cargo, and frequent charging can delay deliveries. However, short-distance deliveries in cities are easier to electrify because electric trucks are quiet and fit well with city rules, and smaller batteries work well for daily city driving.

Railroads are easier to electrify because tracks can be powered through overhead lines or electrified rails, removing the need for heavy batteries. Electric trains, trams, and subways are widely used in Europe and Asia.

Electric trains are more powerful and efficient than traditional trains because they don’t need heavy engines or batteries. This allows high-speed trains to reach speeds over 320 km/h (200 mph) and electric trains to have more power than diesel trains. They can also return energy from braking back to the power grid.

Maglev trains, which use magnetic levitation, are also electric vehicles.

Some battery-powered trains operate on non-electrified tracks.

In Europe, fuel-cell electric trains are becoming popular to replace diesel trains. Countries like Germany, France, and the United Kingdom are using or planning to use hydrogen-powered trains.

Electric boats were popular in the early 1900s. Today, electric motors are used in boats, ferries, and submarines. Fully electric tugboats are now used in cities like Auckland, Vancouver, and San Diego.

Electric power has been tested for airplanes since the start of aviation. Today, both piloted and unpiloted electric aircraft exist.

Electric power has been used in spacecraft for a long time. Spacecraft use batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to power electric systems.

Charging/fueling

A charging station, also called a charge point or electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is a device that provides electricity to recharge the batteries in plug-in electric vehicles. These vehicles include battery electric cars, electric trucks, electric buses, neighborhood electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid vehicles.

There are two main types of EV chargers: alternating current (AC) charging stations and direct current (DC) charging stations. Electric vehicle batteries can only be charged using direct current (DC) electricity, but most electricity from the power grid is alternating current (AC). For this reason, most electric vehicles have a built-in AC-to-DC converter, often called the "onboard charger" (OBC). At an AC charging station, electricity from the grid is sent to the onboard charger, which changes it to DC to charge the battery. DC chargers provide faster charging by including the AC-to-DC converter in the charging station itself. This avoids adding extra size, weight, or cost to the vehicle. The station then sends DC electricity directly to the vehicle, skipping the onboard charger. Most modern electric vehicles can use both AC and DC power.

Instead of recharging electric vehicles using regular electric outlets, some vehicles can have their batteries replaced quickly at special stations (battery swapping).

Some batteries, such as metal–air fuel cells, cannot always be recharged using only electricity. In these cases, parts of the battery, like the anode or electrolyte, may need to be replaced instead. A zinc–air battery, which is technically a fuel cell, is difficult to recharge electrically and may need to be refueled by replacing certain components.

General Motors (GM) is adding a feature called V2H, or bidirectional charging, to its new electric vehicles. This allows the vehicles to send power from their batteries to the owner's home. GM will include this feature in 2024 models, such as the Silverado and Blazer EVs, and plans to continue offering it through model year 2026. This could help owners during power outages because an electric vehicle acts as a large battery that can provide electricity to a home.

Considerations

Electric vehicles (EVs) do not release harmful pollutants from their exhaust, which helps reduce health problems like asthma. By lowering pollution levels, such as nitrogen dioxide, EVs may help prevent many early deaths each year, especially in cities with heavy traffic. EVs also create less noise in urban areas, which improves the quality of life for people living there.

The total carbon emissions from making and using an EV are usually lower than those from traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. However, if electricity used to charge EVs comes from sources like coal, it can increase emissions. This is a concern in areas that rely on coal for power. Additionally, making and recycling EV batteries can harm the environment. The full environmental impact of EVs includes emissions of carbon and sulfur, as well as toxic metals that enter the environment.

Despite these challenges, traditional gasoline vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs. Some estimates suggest that by 2035, over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for EVs may come from recycled sources. In contrast, gasoline-powered cars use large amounts of fossil fuels over their lifetime, meaning EVs can greatly reduce the need for raw materials.

One challenge with EVs is that switching from traditional cars to EVs alone does not free up road space for walking, biking, or public transport. However, electric micromobility vehicles like e-bikes can help reduce emissions, especially in areas where public transport is already available.

The process of making EV batteries has become a topic of political discussion. Extracting raw materials for batteries raises concerns about transparency and how resources are managed. In the supply chain for lithium, many groups, including companies, environmental organizations, and governments, have different interests. One way to manage this is by creating global standards for how battery materials are produced and used.

These standards can be checked using a system called the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). This system looks at how well companies follow environmental and social rules, as well as how well they meet specific standards.

The first stage of making EVs has an environmental cost, often called a "carbon debt." This is mainly because of the energy needed to make high-voltage batteries and extract materials like lithium, cobalt, and rare-earth metals. In 2023, the U.S. State Department said global lithium production needs to increase 42 times by 2050 to support clean energy. Most lithium-ion batteries are made in China, where much of the energy used comes from coal.

Extracting and processing metals like lithium and cobalt harms the environment. For example, mining lithium often uses a lot of water, which contributes to carbon emissions. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, where much of the world’s cobalt is mined, deforestation, water pollution, and high levels of radioactivity are common. Mining nickel in countries like the Philippines and Indonesia has caused environmental damage and deforestation. In 2024, nickel mining was a major cause of deforestation in Indonesia.

In 2022, the International Energy Agency reported that making an EV emits about 50% more carbon dioxide than a traditional gasoline car. However, over time, the much higher emissions from using gasoline far outweigh the emissions from making EVs. In 2023, Greenpeace criticized the idea that EVs are a perfect solution for climate change, pointing out that the environmental impact of making EVs, especially large electric SUVs, can reduce their benefits. Greenpeace suggests using shared mobility services, like biking, public transport, and ride-sharing, instead.

Even though making EVs has an initial environmental cost, studies show that over their lifetime, EVs produce fewer greenhouse gases than traditional cars. The benefit depends on how clean the electricity used to power EVs is. In China, EVs currently produce about 40% less emissions than traditional cars over their lifetime. In India, the benefit is smaller, around 20%, but this is expected to grow as electricity becomes cleaner. By 2035, India’s electricity grid is projected to become 60% cleaner, increasing the environmental benefits of EVs.

Some groups are exploring deep-sea mining to get battery materials, but no carmakers use this method as of 2023. Regulations, like the EU Battery Regulation, aim to reduce environmental harm by covering all stages of battery production, use, and disposal. Countries like France also have policies that limit subsidies for vehicles based on their carbon footprint.

Electric vehicles are about three times more efficient than traditional cars in converting energy into motion. Unlike gasoline engines, which use fuel even when stopped, EVs do not waste energy when idle. In 2022, EVs helped reduce about 80 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions globally. As electricity production becomes cleaner, the environmental benefits of EVs will continue to grow.

Government incentivization

The International Energy Agency (IEA) recommends that governments tax vehicles with inefficient internal combustion engines to encourage the use of electric vehicles (EVs). Tax money collected could be used to help people buy EVs. Some governments buy EVs to support national EV companies. Many countries plan to stop selling vehicles that use fossil fuels between 2025 and 2040.

Governments often provide incentives to help people use EVs. These efforts aim to reduce air pollution and use less oil. Some incentives help pay for the cost of buying an EV. Others include lower taxes or exemptions from certain taxes. Governments also invest in building more places to charge EVs.

As of 2025, most European countries offer financial rewards to encourage businesses to use EVs. Some EV companies have partnered with electricity providers to offer discounts and special deals on EV purchases. These partnerships aim to support cleaner energy use and transportation. Companies that sell EVs have worked with local electricity providers to give large discounts on some EV models.

Infrastructure management

As more people use electric vehicles (EVs), it is important to build enough charging stations to meet the growing need. Around the world, public charging stations are being added quickly, but if EVs grow faster than the number of charging stations, problems could happen. Experts say that if many people charge their cars at the same time during busy hours, it could cause problems for the power system. This could lead to power supply issues, and energy companies would need to manage this carefully.

In the United States, the number of charging ports increased by 4.6% to 6.3% each quarter in early 2024. However, future plans show that there may not be enough charging stations. By 2035, there could be 80 electric cars for every public charging station, compared to about 18 in 2023. This means that unless more charging stations are built, such as the goal of 500,000 public stations by 2030, people may face long waits to charge their cars.

Governments are creating rules to help build more charging stations. For example, India requires chargers to be placed every 25 kilometers along major roads. New charging technology is also helping, as fast-charging stations can now deliver 250–350 kW of power. In Europe, new laws are being made to prepare for even faster chargers that can reach 1 MW of power. However, building these stations will require large investments in both the stations themselves and the power grid.

Electric vehicles can be connected to the power grid when not in use. This means their batteries could help balance electricity supply and demand. For example, during times when electricity is needed most, cars could send power back to the grid, and they could charge when there is extra electricity available, like at night or during the day. This idea, called vehicle-to-grid (V2G), could reduce the need for new power plants, though it might shorten the life of car batteries if they are used this way.

The power system may also need to handle more electricity from sources like wind and solar, which produce energy unevenly. To manage this, the speed at which EVs charge could be adjusted, or even their batteries could be used to store energy when it is available and release it when needed.

Some plans suggest creating battery exchange stations and charging areas similar to gas stations. These would need large storage and charging systems to manage energy. They could help provide power during shortages, much like diesel generators are used to keep some power systems stable.

In-development technologies

Conventional electric double-layer capacitors (supercapacitors) are being developed to increase energy storage while keeping their fast charging speed and long lifespan. Recent research focuses on solid-state supercapacitors that remove liquid electrolytes, improving safety and allowing more flexible designs. Advanced designs include all-graphene oxide flexible solid-state supercapacitors with improved electrochemical performance, reaching areal capacitances of 14.5 mF cm⁻², one of the highest values for graphene-based supercapacitors.

Recent breakthroughs involve dual storage mechanism nanoscale solid-state lithium-ion supercapacitors using lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) as a solid-state electrolyte. These devices achieve capacitance densities of 500 nF·mm⁻² and show excellent stability after 10,000 cycles. High-performance solid-state supercapacitors using silicon electrodes connected by graphene networks perform similarly to high-power carbon-based supercapacitors.

Advanced hybrid designs include all-solid-state planar micro-supercapacitors made from 2D vanadium nitride nanosheets and cobalt hydroxide nanoflowers, achieving energy densities of 12.4 mWh cm⁻³ and power densities of 1,750 mW cm⁻³. Flexible solid-state supercapacitors that work at temperatures from -70 °C to 220 °C use polycation-polybenzimidazole blend electrolytes mixed with phosphoric acid.

Solid-state batteries are a promising next-generation energy storage technology, offering advantages over traditional lithium-ion batteries, such as higher energy density, faster charging, better safety, and longer lifespan. A review in Chemical Engineering Journal states that all-solid-state lithium batteries using solid electrolytes are considered the next step in energy storage, with recent progress speeding their path to commercial use.

The Fraunhofer ISI Solid-State Battery Roadmap 2035+, created with input from over 100 European experts, evaluates solid-state battery development potential over the next decade, comparing it to lithium-ion batteries. Market analysis in Scientific Talks predicts solid-state batteries could reach mass production at costs of 140–175 USD per kWh by 2028–2030, depending on technological and manufacturing challenges.

Recent commercial efforts include Mercedes-Benz and Factorial Energy testing semi-solid-state batteries in the EQS sedan, aiming for a 25% increase in range with energy densities of 391 watt-hours per kilogram. This is the first use of lithium-metal solid-state batteries in a production vehicle. However, IEEE Spectrum notes that solid-state batteries face significant production challenges, with experts skeptical about current claims and engineering obstacles.

Toyota aims to produce solid-state batteries by 2027–2028, targeting a 1,000 km range and 10-minute fast charging. The company claims recent advances have resolved previous battery life trade-offs and now focus on mass production. Research in ACS Energy Letters highlights that while all-solid-state batteries show promise for electric vehicles, challenges remain in Li-metal use, interface stability, and large-scale manufacturing.

Sodium-ion batteries are gaining attention for their potential energy density of 400 Wh/kg and minimal expansion/contraction during charging, using more abundant and cheaper materials than lithium-ion batteries. Research in Energy & Fuels suggests sodium-ion and all-solid-state sodium batteries could be viable future energy storage options due to their lower costs and reliance on sodium resources.

Improvements include separating the electric motor from the battery using electronic control, allowing supercapacitors to handle short bursts of power and regenerative braking energy. New battery designs and intelligent cell management systems address weaknesses in performance and reliability. Cell management includes monitoring battery health and using extra cells as backups. With advanced wiring, one cell can be maintained while others operate.

An electric road system (ERS) is a road that provides power to vehicles. Common methods include overhead power lines, ground-level conductive rails, and dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) using inductive coils or rails. Overhead lines are limited to commercial vehicles, while ground-level rails and wireless systems can be used by all vehicles, enabling public charging with metering and billing systems. Ground-level rails are considered the most cost-effective option.

Government studies and trials have been conducted in multiple countries to develop national electric road systems.

South Korea was the first to test an induction-based public electric road with a bus line in 2013, following a shuttle trial in 2009. However, the system was closed due to aging infrastructure and public funding controversies.

United Kingdom projects in 2015 and 2021 found wireless electric roads too expensive.

Sweden’s electric road program, starting in 2013, evaluated ERS options. After receiving construction proposals exceeding the budget in 2023, Sweden explored cost reductions for wireless or rail systems. A 2024 report recommended against funding a national ERS in Sweden unless neighboring countries like France and Germany adopted the technology. The project was paused after the report.

Germany found that wireless electric roads (wERS) by Electreon collect only 64.3% of transmitted energy and cause installation and infrastructure issues. Overhead line trials in the 2010s and 2020s were deemed too costly, hard to maintain, and unsafe.

France also found overhead lines problematic and began testing inductive and rail systems in 2023. Ground-level power supply systems are seen as the most likely solution.