The 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, often called COP26, was the 26th meeting of the United Nations Climate Change conference. It took place at the SEC Centre in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, from October 31 to November 13, 2021. The president of the conference was Alok Sharma, a UK cabinet minister. The event was delayed for one year because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the third meeting of the parties to the 2015 Paris Agreement (CMA1, CMA2, CMA3), and the 16th meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP16).
This conference was the first since the Paris Agreement of COP21 to require countries to make stronger promises to reduce climate change. The Paris Agreement includes a process called the "ratchet mechanism," which asks countries to update their climate goals every five years. The outcome of COP26 was the Glasgow Climate Pact, agreed upon by all 197 participating countries. However, late actions by India and China weakened plans to end coal power and fossil fuel subsidies, leading to a less strict agreement than some had hoped. Despite this, the pact was the first climate deal to clearly state the need to reduce coal use. It also encouraged faster cuts in greenhouse gas emissions and promised more financial support for developing countries to deal with climate impacts.
During the conference, on November 6, 2021, a protest against weak climate action and for other environmental issues became the largest demonstration in Glasgow since the anti-Iraq War protests in 2003. Similar rallies occurred in 100 other countries.
Background
The United Kingdom was in charge of COP26 until COP27 began. At first, Claire Perry, the Energy and Clean Growth Minister, was chosen to lead the conference. However, she left the role in January 2020, several months after she stopped working as an MP. David Cameron, a former Prime Minister, and William Hague, a former Foreign Secretary, refused to take the position. On February 13, 2020, Alok Sharma, the Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Secretary, was appointed as the new leader. In January 2021, Sharma became the Cabinet Office Secretary to focus fully on leading COP26, and Kwasi Kwarteng took over as Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Secretary.
Nigel Topping, who once led the We Mean Business organization, was named the UK Government's High Level Climate Action Champion for COP26.
Italy worked with the UK to help organize COP26. Italy's main tasks included hosting a pre-COP meeting and a youth event called Youth4Climate 2020: Driving Ambition. These events happened in Milan from September 28 to October 2, 2020.
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the conference was delayed from April 2020 to October 31–November 12, 2021. Both Italy and the UK were greatly affected by the pandemic. The venue, the SEC Centre in Glasgow, was turned into a temporary hospital for patients in Scotland in May 2020.
Patricia Espinosa, the Convention Secretary, said it was not possible to hold COP26 in November 2020 because of the global effects of the pandemic. She also said that restarting economies after the pandemic could help create a cleaner, healthier, and more resilient world. The new date was announced in May 2020. In 2021, the UK hosted the G7 summit, and Italy hosted the G20 summit.
Some people noted that the delay allowed the world to respond to the outcome of the 2020 U.S. presidential election. President Donald Trump had left the Paris Agreement, but this change would not take effect until after the election. His opponent, Joe Biden, promised to rejoin the agreement and increase efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. After becoming president, Biden apologized for Trump's decision to leave the agreement.
Earlier COP summits were supported by companies that produce fossil fuels. To reduce this influence, the UK required sponsors to show real plans to help reach net zero soon. The first main partners included three British energy companies and a bank and insurance company.
Location and participation
Before the summit councils in and around Glasgow promised to plant 18 million trees over the next 10 years, the Clyde Climate Forest (CCF) plans to increase tree coverage in urban areas of the Greater Glasgow region to 20%.
In September 2021, the conference was encouraged by the Climate Action Network to allow attendees to join despite travel restrictions linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the event, the British government had travel limits from certain countries and required proof of vaccination for some venues. Some people worried that unequal vaccine distribution worldwide might prevent representatives from poorer countries, which are heavily affected by climate change, from attending. The UK later eased travel rules for delegates. Only four Pacific Island nations sent full delegations because of pandemic-related restrictions, and most island nations sent smaller groups than planned. Organizers required many health rules for attendees, depending on their vaccination status.
On June 4, 2021, a nighttime light display was placed on the Tolbooth Steeple as part of the Climate Clock initiative. The display showed two statistics: the time remaining before global warming reaches 1.5°C, and the share of the world’s energy from renewable sources. The Scottish Events Campus (SEC), called the Blue Zone, temporarily became United Nations territory. The main other venue was the Green Zone at the Glasgow Science Centre.
The summit used "the cleanest electricity in the UK," with 70% coming from low-carbon nuclear power plants in Torness and Hunterston B, and the rest mostly from wind energy.
Medical services for the event were provided by BASICS Scotland, Amvale Medical, and the Scottish Ambulance Service. The medical center was visited by Scottish National Clinical Director Jason Leitch and Scottish Health Secretary Humza Yousaf during the conference.
About 25,000 delegates from nearly 200 countries were expected to attend, with around 120 heads of state present. Attendees included UN Secretary-General António Guterres, U.S. President Joe Biden, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, French President Emmanuel Macron, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Indonesian President Joko Widodo, Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida, Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari, Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki, Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven, and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky. Former U.S. President Barack Obama and broadcaster David Attenborough, who was named COP26 People’s Advocate, also spoke at the summit.
Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison attended. Czech Prime Minister Andrej Babiš criticized the European Union’s Fit for 55 laws, part of the European Green Deal, saying the bloc "can achieve nothing without the participation of the largest polluters such as China or the USA."
Prince Charles spoke at the opening ceremony in person. Queen Elizabeth, advised by doctors to rest, sent a video message to the conference. Bill Gates urged a "green industrial revolution" to address the climate crisis.
The fossil fuel industry had the largest group of participants, with 503 people officially registered.
In October 2021, China’s leader Xi Jinping said he would not attend the summit in person and instead sent a written message because organizers did not allow a video address. Reuters noted this made it less likely the conference would produce a major climate agreement. However, a Chinese delegation led by climate envoy Xie Zhenhua attended. The 2021 global energy crisis added pressure on China before the summit. Leaders from South Africa, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, Malaysia, and Vatican City also did not attend.
Russian President Vladimir Putin said his absence was due to pandemic-related concerns. Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi did not attend after a request was made to arrest him for crimes against humanity if he came, based on the legal idea of universal jurisdiction. Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman also did not attend. Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro, who faced global criticism for deforestation in the Amazon, chose not to attend in person.
The absence of Putin and Xi was criticized by U.S. President Joe Biden and former U.S. President Barack Obama.
Myanmar and Afghanistan did not send any representatives, as their UN-recognized governments were removed by military force in 2021. Myanmar’s military government was blocked from attending the summit. Six Afghan climate experts who had been exiled were denied entry by the UNFCCC. The island nation of Kiribati did not send participants, while Vanuatu and Samoa registered but did not send a delegation.
Ratchet mechanism
Under the Paris Agreement, countries made promises called nationally determined contributions to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Every five years, each country is required to submit updated nationally determined contributions to increase their efforts in reducing climate change. When the Paris Agreement was signed at COP21, the conference in 2020 was planned to be the first time countries would update their promises. However, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 conference was moved to 2021. By early October 2021, many countries still had not updated their pledges. Progress toward meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement, including reducing emissions, adapting to climate impacts, and providing financial support, will be reviewed through global stocktakes. The first global stocktake is expected to be completed in 2023.
Outcomes
On November 13, 2021, 197 participating countries agreed to a new agreement called the Glasgow Climate Pact. The goal of the pact is to prevent dangerous changes in the Earth's climate.
The pact states that the goal from the Paris Agreement remains to keep the global average temperature increase below 2°C compared to pre-industrial times, and to try to limit it to 1.5°C. It also says that limiting warming to 1.5°C requires quickly and greatly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This includes cutting global carbon dioxide emissions by 45% by 2030 compared to 2010 levels and reaching net zero emissions by midcentury. However, current plans do not guarantee success, as emissions in 2030 are expected to be 14% higher than in 2010.
The agreement specifically mentions coal, which is the largest source of climate change. Earlier climate meetings did not clearly link coal, oil, or gas to climate change. The Glasgow Climate Pact is the first to plan to reduce coal power that does not reduce emissions. The agreement uses the phrase "phase down" instead of "phase out," meaning coal power that reduces emissions (like through carbon capture) may not need to be cut. However, this technology is too costly for most coal power plants.
Over 140 countries pledged to reach net-zero emissions. This includes 90% of the world’s total economic value. More than 100 countries, including Brazil, promised to stop cutting down forests by 2030.
The pact calls for faster efforts to stop giving money to inefficient fossil fuel projects. Thirty-four countries, along with banks and financial groups, agreed to stop funding fossil fuel projects by the end of 2022, except in rare cases that align with the 1.5°C goal. These groups also plan to fund more sustainable projects. Countries like Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain are major supporters.
More than 40 countries pledged to move away from coal. The United States and China agreed to work together on climate solutions, including reducing methane emissions, cutting coal use, and protecting forests.
Thirty-nine countries and organizations signed the Glasgow Statement, which aims to redirect public funding from fossil fuels to clean energy. If this plan works, $28 billion per year could shift from fossil fuels to clean energy.
India promised to get half of its energy from renewable sources by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2070.
Twenty-four developed countries and major car companies, such as GM, Ford, Volvo, and Mercedes-Benz, committed to making all new car and van sales zero-emission globally by 2040, and in major markets by 2035. Countries like China, the U.S., Japan, Germany, and South Korea, along with car companies like Toyota and Volkswagen, did not sign this pledge.
New financial promises to help with climate change were announced.
On November 9, 2021, the Climate Action Tracker reported that current policies would lead to a 2.7°C temperature rise by the end of the century. If only 2030 pledges are followed, the rise would be 2.4°C. If long-term goals are also met, the rise would be 2.1°C. If all goals are fully achieved, the rise would be 1.8°C.
The Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ) reported that financial institutions managing $130 trillion have pledged to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.
Negotiations
The world leaders' summit took place on November 1 and 2. Each leader gave a statement about their country's position.
A main goal of the conference was to keep the temperature increase below 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit). According to the BBC, important negotiators involved in the discussions included Xie Zhenhua, Ayman Shasly, Sheikh Hasina, and Teresa Ribera.
China stated its goal to reach the highest level of carbon dioxide emissions before 2030 and to become carbon neutral by 2060. It was asked to set an earlier date for peaking emissions, as this could greatly help achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. Officials later said the 2030 target was something to "strive to" achieve, not a guaranteed result.
Leaders of more than 100 countries, which together manage about 85% of the world's forests, including Canada, Russia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the United States, agreed to stop deforestation by 2030. This improves on a similar 2014 agreement, which now includes Brazil, Indonesia, businesses, and more financial support. The 2014 agreement, called the New York Declaration on Forests, aimed to reduce deforestation by half by 2020 and end it by 2030. However, deforestation increased between 2014 and 2020.
Indonesia's environment minister, Siti Nurbaya Bakar, said, "Forcing Indonesia to stop all deforestation by 2030 is clearly inappropriate and unfair."
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, which outlines rules for an international carbon market and other global cooperation efforts, is still being discussed. It is the final part of the agreement's rulebook that remains unfinished. While the parties agree in principle to avoid counting emission reductions more than once across different countries' records, the exact amount of overlap is still unclear. Discussions will take place about carrying forward carbon credits from before 2020, but this is unlikely to be agreed upon. Therefore, the rules for Article 6 could significantly affect future emissions.
Climate finance for adaptation and mitigation was a major topic of negotiation. Poorer countries want more funding for adapting to climate impacts, while wealthier countries prefer to support efforts that reduce emissions, as these can generate profits. Mark Carney, former Governor of the Bank of England, was appointed as the Climate Finance Adviser. The Paris Agreement included a promise to provide $100 billion annually in funding for developing countries by 2020. However, wealthy countries did not meet this goal, with members of the OECD falling behind and unlikely to reach the target before 2023. A group of large financial companies pledged to achieve net-zero emissions in their investments by 2050. Scotland became the first country to contribute to a fund for addressing climate-related losses and damages.
South Africa will receive $8.5 billion to reduce its dependence on coal. Details about limiting coal mines, exports, and supporting workers in the coal industry are not clear. Countries including Chile, Poland, Ukraine, South Korea, Indonesia, and Vietnam agreed to phase out coal in the 2030s for major economies and the 2040s for poorer nations. These countries include some of the world's largest users of coal. However, they do not include the world's largest coal users: China, India, and the United States of America. Japan plans to invest $100 million in converting fossil fuel power plants to use ammonia and hydrogen fuel.
The United States and many other countries agreed to reduce methane emissions. More than 80 countries signed a global methane pledge, aiming to cut emissions by 30% by the end of the decade. Leaders from the U.S. and Europe said addressing this powerful greenhouse gas is essential to keeping warming below 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit). Australia, China, Russia, India, and Iran did not sign the agreement, but it is hoped more countries will join later.
Russia requested relief from sanctions on green investment projects for energy companies like Gazprom. Russia's climate envoy, Ruslan Edelgeriyev, accused Western countries of being hypocritical for urging Russia to reduce methane leaks while Gazprom remains under sanctions.
Many attendees committed to achieving net-zero carbon emissions. India and Japan made specific promises at the conference. India, the third-largest carbon dioxide emitter by jurisdiction, set a target to reach net-zero emissions by 2070. Japan plans to provide up to $10 billion in additional funding to support decarbonization in Asia. Earlier in October, China—the largest carbon dioxide emitter by jurisdiction—committed to net-zero emissions by 2060. It was believed by the British government that India would make a similar commitment, but this was the first time India provided a specific date for its climate policy. Green hydrogen has become a key area for companies to collaborate in reducing emissions in industries that are hard to decarbonize.
Big city mayors concerned about climate change, such as Istanbul Mayor Ekrem İmamoğlu, part of the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, called for more urban climate adaptation, especially in low-income countries.
Forty-five countries, including the UK, U.S., Japan, Germany, India, Indonesia, Morocco, Vietnam, Philippines, Gabon, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Uruguay, pledged to provide more than $4 billion to support the transition to sustainable agriculture. The organization "Slow Food" expressed concerns about the effectiveness of these funds, as they focus on technological solutions and reforestation rather than a comprehensive approach to agroecology that integrates food production with natural systems.
The conference placed electric vehicles and plans to increase their use at the center, including the electric OX truck. However, activists said better investment and political support for sustainable transport options like public transit and cycling were not prioritized.
A draft text published on November 10 asked governments to speed up the phase-out of fossil fuels and reduce subsidies for them, as they are the largest source of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. However, several countries with large fossil fuel-based economies opposed this request.
Reception
Business leaders and politicians, including Jeff Bezos, Prince Charles, Boris Johnson, Joe Biden, and Angela Merkel, traveled to Glasgow in private airplanes. Some people criticized them for not acting as they say they will. Event planners said the conference would not add extra carbon to the environment. About 400 private jets arrived in Glasgow for the talks.
In October 2021, the BBC reported that leaked documents showed Saudi Arabia, Japan, and Australia asked the United Nations to downplay the need to move quickly away from fossil fuels. The documents also showed that some wealthy countries, like Switzerland and Australia, questioned paying more to help poorer countries use greener technologies. This raised concerns about the COP26 climate summit. The Australian government was criticized for hosting a fossil fuel company at the summit, not setting stronger goals, not promising to reduce methane emissions, and not planning to stop using coal.
Before the conference, Greta Thunberg was asked if she was hopeful the summit would achieve anything. She said, "Nothing has changed from previous years. Leaders will make promises but do nothing. Maybe some small actions, but nothing real will happen." Queen Elizabeth II was overheard saying, "It's irritating when they talk but do nothing."
Experts like Edmond Fernandes and Fatemeh Rezaei said that a public health approach in all policies, focused on reducing risks, lowering disease, and preparing health systems for emergencies, is important for sustainability.
On November 1, Greta Thunberg criticized the summit during a protest in Glasgow with members of Fridays for Future, saying, "This COP26 is like previous meetings and has not helped us."
On November 5, a protest with thousands of people, mostly schoolchildren, took place in Glasgow. Most local governments said students would not be punished if parents told schools they were absent. On November 6, about 100,000 people marched in Glasgow, according to the BBC. The protests were the largest in Glasgow since anti-war marches in 2003. A London march had 10,000 people (police count) or 20,000 (organizers). The Times estimated over two million people participated worldwide, with 300 protests in 100 countries. On November 8, activists from Fridays for Future protested before a speech by former U.S. President Barack Obama, saying he had not kept his promise to fund climate efforts in developing countries.
Vanessa Nakate and indigenous activists spoke at the summit. Protesters raised concerns about putting corporate interests first, politicians not acting quickly enough on the climate crisis, and not addressing its root causes. People from different groups, including indigenous communities, scientists, and activists, attended marches.
One person who could not attend was Karine Elharrar, Israel’s energy minister, due to wheelchair accessibility issues on November 1.
The menu at COP26 faced criticism from the Animal Rebellion group, which focuses on animal and climate justice. The menu had about 60% meat and dairy, and some high-carbon dishes were served. The event’s caterer said the menu was 40% plant-based and 60% vegetarian, with food mostly from the UK. Single-use cups and plastics were not used.
There were concerns about the influence of large companies and financial organizations involved in causing greenhouse gas emissions at the conference.
Critics said the conference needs clear plans for reducing emissions and adapting to climate changes, as well as ways to hold countries accountable. Reports from media outlets like CNBC, BBC, and CBS News said financial firms can still invest in fossil fuels, and pledges lack focus on quality, not just quantity. Ending deforestation by 2030 is seen as too late, and countries need to share detailed plans for meeting their goals. Pledges are not mandatory, and no punishment systems were set up. Critics called this a "greenwashing" event with empty promises.
Some people criticized the lack of representation from those most affected by climate change. Kaossara Sani, who came from the Sahel region, sent her criticism about the situation there to Forbes.
Experts said COP26 missed important links, such as how climate change, disasters, and public health issues affect the Asia Pacific region.
A report by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue and journalism groups said the summit became a target for false information about climate change, such as claims that action should be delayed.
On November 9, the Climate Action Tracker said the world is on track for a 2.7°C temperature rise by the end of the century with current policies. If 2030 pledges are followed, the rise would be 2.4°C. If long-term goals are met, it would be 2.1°C. If all targets are fully met, it would be 1.8°C. Current 2030 goals are still "totally inadequate." Coal and natural gas use are the main reasons for the gap between pledges and policies. Only 6% of global emissions (from the EU, UK, Chile, and Costa Rica) have detailed plans to meet their goals.
On November 10, the United States and China agreed to work together on reducing carbon emissions, including lowering methane use, phasing out coal, and protecting forests.
On November 11, the Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDC), a group of 22 countries including China and India, asked to remove all references to reducing emissions from the draft text.