Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon basin describes the farming methods used by indigenous groups in the Amazon rainforest before Europeans arrived. This is different from the belief that the rainforest was completely untouched by humans. Early Spanish and Portuguese explorers reported seeing large cities and well-developed farming areas. Estimates suggest the pre-Columbian Amazon had between a few million and 10 million people. After the European conquest caused a major drop in population, these communities were largely forgotten. Recent scientific studies have helped uncover more about these lost settlements.

Agriculture in the pre-Columbian period

The slow change from small groups that gathered food to more advanced farming societies in the Amazon Basin began over 10,000 years ago. The exact timing varied in different parts of the region. Over time, these early farming methods became more complex, including growing trees and crops like root vegetables and seeds. These systems allowed for stable communities with large populations. Early European explorers wrote about large, well-fed groups of people living along river bluffs, with orchards on hills and farmland in floodplain areas.

In the Americas, European arrival led to the collapse of indigenous populations and the loss of their farming systems. Starting around the year 2000, scientists used methods like studying plant DNA, analyzing tiny plant fossils, and using satellite technology to learn more about the Amazon’s history. These studies showed that the Amazon was not a untouched forest when Europeans arrived, but instead, it was shaped by human activity. The Amazon and Mesoamerica are now considered early and independent places where agriculture began.

Key features of these agricultural practices include:

By 15,000 years ago, humans had reached most of western South America. The first clear evidence of people living in the tropical forests of eastern Brazil dates to about 13,000 years ago. By 11,000 years ago, people began staying in the same places for longer periods and changed their environments by clearing forests or burning them.

Indigenous people helped shape the Amazon Rainforest by favoring useful plants. This changed the types and numbers of trees, such as Brazil nuts. These changes spread outward from rivers, with areas near villages and trails changing more than distant places. Studies near the Purus and Madeira rivers show useful plants can be found up to 40 kilometers from rivers.

Archaeological evidence shows farming in South America started between 11,000 and 7,600 years ago. Early crops included lerén and arrowroot, but over time, more plants were grown. Plant domestication was a slow process until about 6,000 years ago, when farming became more advanced and faster. Before European contact, at least 83 plant species were domesticated in the Amazon, including cacao, hot peppers, manioc, pineapple, sweet potato, and tobacco, as well as many fruit trees and palms.

Amazonian soils are usually poor in nutrients in central and northwestern areas but richer in the southwest. Some soils, called terra preta (dark earth in Portuguese), were made more fertile by humans. These soils are common in the Amazon, but scientists debate whether they were mostly made by people or if natural processes like flooding played a role. Some believe humans created them, while others think they used natural processes to form these unique soils.

Terra preta contains high amounts of tiny charcoal particles, which give the soil its dark color, as well as pottery pieces, plant remains, and bones. These soils were created near settlements through activities like burning plants, farming, and throwing away waste. The charcoal in terra preta helps hold nutrients in the soil for thousands of years.

Indigenous people used agroforestry, which combined growing trees with other crops. This method provided food, timber, fibers, and medicine. They also planted multiple crops in the same area to increase resources. Studies show that around 4,500 years ago, people in the eastern Amazon started using a mix of crops and trees, which became more common with the development of terra preta soils 2,000 years ago. Over time, crops like maize, sweet potato, and manioc were added to their farming systems. This combination helped create a modern variety of edible plants, showing how past land management shaped today’s forests.

Large pre-Columbian earthworks, such as ceremonial sites, villages, and roads, have been found. New technology and deforestation have revealed extensive farming systems, including thousands of raised fields, roads, canals, and artificial ponds. Indigenous groups also built raised fields in wet areas to grow crops like water chestnuts and arrowroot, which could survive seasonal flooding.

Pre-Columbian population, population collapse and renewal of interest

Explorers from Spain and Portugal in the 16th and 17th centuries recorded the thriving communities living along the Amazon River and its smaller rivers. However, there is little historical information about the people who lived in the region before Europeans arrived. Today’s estimates of the population before European contact vary widely. Some estimates suggest there were about 1 or 2 million people, while others suggest there may have been as many as 8 to 10 million people. The arrival of European settlers led to the breakdown of these farming systems and the communities that depended on them. These populations could not survive the diseases brought by Europeans or the forced labor they faced, and many traditional farming methods were lost over time.

Now, there is increasing interest in learning more about and protecting the farming practices used by pre-Columbian people in the Amazon Basin. The new biochar industry is one example of this effort. Much of the region remains unstudied in this area. Indigenous groups, scientists, and environmentalists are working together to research, restore, and adjust these ancient methods to help solve modern problems like deforestation, climate change, and ensuring enough food for people.