Water politics, also known as hydropolitics, refers to how the availability of water and water resources influences political decisions. Water is essential for all living things and human progress.
Arun P. Elhance defines hydropolitics as the study of how countries work together or disagree about water resources that cross borders. Mollinga, P. P. divides water politics into four areas: managing water resources daily, making water policies within individual countries, dealing with water issues between countries, and addressing water matters globally. The amount of drinking water available per person is not enough and is getting smaller worldwide. Problems include not enough water, poor water quality, and growing populations. Other causes are overuse, pollution, harm to the environment, and changes in the climate.
Water is an important natural resource, and not having enough clean water often leads to political conflicts. As water becomes less available but more needed, some people say clean water may become as valuable as oil. Countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru, which have plenty of water, could become major water suppliers. A 2003 report by the United Nations said that in the next 20 years, the total water supply for everyone may drop by 30%. Right now, 40% of the world’s people do not have enough fresh water for basic cleanliness. In 2000, over 2.2 million people died from diseases linked to dirty water or drought. In 2004, a UK charity called WaterAid found that a child dies every 15 seconds from preventable water-related illnesses, often due to poor waste disposal. A 2006 report by the United Nations Development Program noted that while some areas have luxury bottled water with no health benefits, others face serious health risks because people drink water from polluted rivers or lakes. Fresh water is now more valuable than ever because it is used in farming, high-tech industries, and energy production. It is getting more attention as a resource that needs better management and long-term use.
Disputes over water rights related to rivers are now important in international diplomacy, along with water rights within countries and regions. Ismail Serageldin, a leader at the World Bank, said, "Many 20th-century wars were about oil, but 21st-century wars could be about water unless we manage water better." Some people disagree, saying water disputes are usually settled through diplomacy and do not lead to wars. A newer idea suggests that fears of losing control over shared water sources might make countries always ready for conflict, just in case a war happens.
Water policy
Water resource policy, also known as water management, includes the rules and laws that govern how water is collected, treated, used, disposed of, and protected. Long-term water supply systems face challenges because of water shortages, climate change, and growing populations.
Water is essential for all living things and for human industries, such as farming and technology. Because clean water is needed worldwide, water resource policies help decide how to provide and protect water supplies. These policies differ by region and depend on factors like water availability, the health of water systems, and local water needs. Since rivers and lakes often cross national borders, policies also rely on international agreements about water use. Protecting water quality, such as by reducing pollution and improving water health, is also part of water resource policy. Creating these policies requires considering many groups, environmental factors, and the needs of people and nature. Ocean areas, coasts, and natural resources are also managed under water resource policies, such as when land is leased for offshore wind energy.
As climate change causes more water shortages, strong water policies will be increasingly important. By 2050, about 57% of the world’s population may face water shortages for at least one month each year. Addressing these issues will need teamwork across different fields and countries, involving government workers, scientists, economists, climate experts, and activists.
Water politics concepts
In 2006, scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner introduced the concept of hydro-hegemony as a way to study how powerful countries or regions along a river (called riparians) can shift from controlling water resources to working together. This idea is especially helpful in situations where countries are not fully cooperating but also not fighting over water, as is sometimes feared in discussions about "water wars."
Hydro-hegemony describes how one country gains influence over a river basin by controlling water resources. This is done through methods like capturing water, managing its use, and limiting access. These methods are carried out using tactics such as using pressure, signing agreements, or sharing information, which are made possible by existing differences in power between countries. The two main factors that shape hydro-hegemony are a country’s position along the river (upstream or downstream) and how much water it can control. Usually, upstream countries use water to gain more power, while downstream countries use their power to secure more water. The country that gains control over the water resource is typically the most powerful one, often referred to as the "first among equals."
In 2010, Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão updated the framework to include four types of power: geographical power (location), material power (resources), bargaining power (negotiation strength), and ideational power (influence through ideas). This means hydro-hegemony occurs when the most powerful country in a river basin gains control over shared water flows.
While Zeitoun and Warner suggest hydro-hegemony often leads to stability, weaker countries may sometimes try to challenge this dominance. In these cases, they may attempt to change how power is shared by shifting discussions or actions to favor themselves over the dominant country.
Water as a critical resource
Fresh water is a basic need for all living things, including humans, plants, and animals. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) says access to fresh water is a basic human right and important for peace. In 2001, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said, "Safe water is a basic human need and a right. Contaminated water harms people’s health and is a disrespect to human dignity." As industries grow, sectors like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation use more fresh water. This has increased pollution, which harms water quality. More sustainable practices are needed to protect water resources.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), each person needs at least 20 liters of fresh water daily for basic hygiene, which totals about 7.3 cubic meters (255 cubic feet) per person each year. Water use varies by country. Developed nations have systems to treat and deliver water to homes, while some countries in Latin America, parts of Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East lack enough water or the infrastructure to manage it. This shortage causes conflicts, reduces water availability, and can lead to disease, hunger, and death.
Most fresh water comes from precipitation, such as rain, snow, and mist, as part of the water cycle over many years. Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh, and two-thirds of that is frozen in glaciers and ice caps. The rest is groundwater, with a small amount in the air or on the ground. Surface water, found in wetlands, lakes, rivers, and streams, is the most used resource. It can be stored in reservoirs behind dams for drinking water, farming, and power generation. Groundwater, found in soil and rock, is used for drinking and irrigation. Some deep groundwater, called "fossil water," is not renewable.
Rivers often flow through multiple countries and can form borders. Managing water supply, use, and control is crucial for survival, health, and economic growth. Controlling water resources is vital for a nation’s stability. Similar issues occur with groundwater that flows across borders. Limited water resources have caused or worsened conflicts in the past.
The highlands of Ethiopia are a "water tower" region in East Africa. Control of water in these highlands may influence political decisions in areas downstream for many years.
Contamination from human activity
Water contamination happens in two main ways: point sources and non-point sources. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines point source pollution as pollution that comes from a single, clear source, such as a pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack. Common examples of point source pollution include poor factory and sewage treatment. Oil spills are also a type of point source pollution, though they are less common than other examples. Non-point source pollution comes from many different sources. Poorly managed agricultural activities, such as farming, can harm nearby water sources.
Industrial products and wastes: Many harmful chemicals are used in local businesses and industries. These chemicals can pollute drinking water if not handled properly. Common sources include:
– Local businesses: Factories, industrial plants, and small businesses like gas stations and dry cleaners use dangerous chemicals that need careful management. Spills or improper disposal of these chemicals can harm groundwater.
– Leaking underground tanks and piping: Chemicals and petroleum stored in underground tanks or pipes can leak into groundwater if the tanks or pipes are not built or maintained correctly. Old or rusty tanks, especially on farms, are more likely to leak. Farm tanks are not covered by EPA rules for petroleum and chemical storage.
– Landfills and waste dumps: Modern landfills are designed to prevent leaks, but heavy rain can carry pollutants over barriers. Older dumps may have many harmful substances that seep into groundwater.
Household wastes: Improper disposal of common household items, such as cleaning solvents, used motor oil, paints, and detergents, can pollute groundwater. Faulty septic tanks and septic leaching fields are also a source of contamination.
Lead and copper: Lead is rarely found in water sources but can come from old plumbing materials in homes built before 1986. Lead can enter drinking water when these materials corrode (deteriorate). The pH of water (a measure of how acidic or basic it is, from 0 to 14) affects corrosion. Water that is too acidic or too basic can cause plumbing materials to break down. High levels of lead in drinking water can harm children’s development and cause health problems in adults over time.
Water treatment chemicals: Improper handling or storage of water-well treatment chemicals, such as disinfectants, near a well can cause pollution.
Agricultural activities: Non-point source pollution from agriculture includes:
– Poorly managed animal feeding operations: Farms that raise many animals in small spaces can produce large amounts of waste that pollute water.
– Overgrazing: Too many animals grazing on the same land can damage soil and increase runoff.
– Overworking the land: Activities like plowing too often can harm soil and increase pollution.
– Poorly managed use of pesticides, fertilizer, and irrigation water: These chemicals can run off into water sources.
– Bacteria and nitrates: These come from human and animal waste. Septic systems and large farms must be managed carefully to avoid contaminating private wells.
– Concentrated animal feeding operations: Large farms with many animals, called "factory farms," produce large amounts of waste. This waste must be managed to prevent pollution.
– Heavy metals: Activities like mining and construction can release metals such as arsenic into groundwater. Old fruit orchards may still have high levels of arsenic from past pesticide use.
– Fertilizers and pesticides: These are used on farms, golf courses, and lawns. Chemicals from these products can seep into groundwater. The amount of contamination depends on the type and amount of chemicals used and how they are applied.
Groundwater is usually clear because the ground filters out solid particles. However, natural and human-made chemicals can still be found in groundwater. For example, metals like iron and manganese can dissolve in groundwater and appear in high amounts. Human activities, such as leaking fuel tanks, industrial discharges, and improper waste disposal, can also pollute groundwater. Rain or snowmelt can carry pollutants from the ground into rivers, lakes, and underground water sources. According to the 2002 National Water Quality Inventory report, agricultural non-point source pollution is the leading cause of river and stream problems and the second leading cause of problems in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.
Water politics by country
The United States uses more water per person than any other country in the world, with nearly 2,000 cubic meters (71,000 cubic feet) of water used each year. Among developed countries in the OECD, the U.S. uses the most water, followed by Canada, which uses about 1,600 cubic meters (57,000 cubic feet) per person. This is about twice the amount used by the average person in France, three times the amount used by the average person in Germany, and almost eight times the amount used by the average person in Denmark. A 2001 report from the University of Victoria found that water use in Canada increased by 25.7% since 1980, which is five times faster than the average increase in other OECD countries. In contrast, nine OECD countries, including Sweden, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Denmark, reduced their overall water use since 1980.
The Ganges River is shared by India and Bangladesh. The river’s water is being used up quickly and is becoming polluted. The Gangotri glacier, which supplies water to the Ganges, is moving back hundreds of feet each year. Experts say this is because of climate change. Deforestation in the Himalayas is also causing underground streams that flow into the Ganges to dry up. In India, the Farakka Barrage, a dam near the border with Bangladesh, controls the river’s flow. Until the late 1990s, India used the dam to direct water to Calcutta to keep its port from drying up during dry seasons. This action reduced water and silt available to Bangladeshi farmers and harmed wetlands and mangrove forests in the Ganges delta. Recently, India and Bangladesh signed an agreement to share the river’s water more fairly. However, water quality remains a problem, with high levels of arsenic and untreated sewage in the river.
India recently started building the Kishanganga Dam, which reduces the amount of water flowing into Pakistan’s Jehlum River. Pakistan is also building a similar dam called the Neelum Jehlum Dam. According to the 1960 Indo-Pak Treaty, India controls the Ravi and Sutlej Rivers, while Pakistan controls the Jehlum, Chenab, and Indus Rivers. Despite this agreement, Pakistan has expressed dissatisfaction with how water is shared with India.
Mexico faces challenges in providing clean water to homes and businesses while preventing water pollution. As the country has grown and become more industrialized, the demand for clean water has increased. However, pollution from industry and the dry climate have limited access to clean water for many people. The dry climate also makes the country more vulnerable to droughts, which could worsen water shortages.
Mexico relies heavily on groundwater, which has led to overuse of underground water sources. Mexico City, the largest city in the country, has a high demand for drinking water. The city’s water supply system, called SCAMEX, is only 98% effective, leaving about 48,000 households without water. Even those with access to SCAMEX often face problems, such as water leaks and poor water quality. About 40% of the city’s water is lost due to old, leaky pipes. A 2011 survey found that up to 87% of households in Mexico City prefer to use bottled water or filtration devices instead of tap water. These alternatives are more expensive than using the city’s water supply.
In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water is a key resource and a political issue. A 1999 Arab League report found that two-thirds of Arab countries had less than 1,000 cubic meters (35,000 cubic feet) of water available per person each year, which is considered the minimum needed. By 2025, countries in the Arabian Peninsula are expected to use more than double the water available naturally. By 2030, the World Bank predicts that the MENA region will face severe water shortages, as defined by the United Nations. Rapid population growth and climate change are expected to make water scarcity worse. While water scarcity is often cited as a cause of conflict and instability in the region, some scholars argue that the real issue is how water is managed and distributed, not just its availability.
In the Middle East, water disputes have contributed to conflicts between countries like Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other nations along the Nile River; and Israel and Palestine. Many major rivers in the region, such as the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile, cross international borders, meaning that downstream countries are heavily affected by the actions of upstream countries. Other important water resources include the Suez Canal, the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf.
The Guaraní Aquifer, located in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, is a major source of fresh water for these countries. The aquifer is filled by rain and small rivers and streams. However, population growth in the area, including large cities like São Paulo and Curitiba, requires careful monitoring to prevent overuse and pollution. Weak environmental laws and poor waste management in the region could lead to water shortages and flooding.
The Water Justice movement is a community-based effort in the United States, where citizens work to improve access to clean water through protests, petitions, fundraising, and donations, such as providing water filters. Notable individuals like Erin Brockovich, an environmental activist, have spoken out about the water crisis in Flint, Michigan. Actress Shailene Woodley was arrested during a protest against the Dakota Access Pipeline and later shared her experience. Standing Rock Sioux Tribal Chairman Dave Archambault II has also advocated for water rights, speaking at the United Nations about his tribe’s concerns.
Economy
Globalization has helped the economy by increasing trade and the production of food, energy, and goods. However, this increased trade and production require large amounts of water. Experts predict that by 2050, the world's demand for water will increase by 55%. Many countries and groups have declared a water crisis. Water is a limited resource shared between nations, within nations, and among different groups. About 50% of the world's water is located in areas shared by two or more countries. Managing water requires fair policies and cooperation between nations. Poor water management can lead to conflicts, especially over freshwater, which is essential for survival. Countries with more water often have greater economic success because of better agriculture and production. Countries with less water may have lower economic success. This gap in water access can also cause conflicts. The World Trade Organization plays a key role in managing water to protect agricultural trade. Water is a vital resource for economic success.
The Jordan River conflict, also called the War over Water, is an example of a conflict over shared water between Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine. This conflict began in 1953 due to poor water management and ongoing negotiations. Jordan wanted to use a shared river basin for farming and economic purposes. In response, Israel closed a dam in the Sea of Galilee, reducing water availability. A plan called the Bunger Plan aimed to fairly divide water among the countries, but Israel claimed its rights to use the river were not recognized. The conflict has caused economic harm to agriculture, irrigation, and resources in all involved countries. The World Health Organization estimates that poor water management and supply cost the world about $260 billion each year. The Jordan River conflict shows how inefficient water management contributes to these losses. Negotiations continue to find a fair way to share the river’s water, but progress has been limited.
The Aral Sea conflict is an ongoing issue between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Social factors like economic growth, population increases, energy needs, and pollution have caused water shortages. These shortages make it hard to fairly allocate water between neighboring countries. Water scarcity has harmed fish populations, biodiversity, air quality, forests, farmland, and ecosystems. Poor water management has hurt the economies of these countries and stressed resources needed for agriculture. Studies show that water shortages can cost regions up to 6% of their GDP and cause migration, which harms local economies. Groups like the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination and the Aral Sea Basin Program have tried to resolve the conflict, but the problem remains unsolved.
Water management also happens within countries, known as subnational water politics. Sharing control of water between local governments and groups is important for effective management. Poor water management at the local level can hurt the economy by raising costs for businesses and farming, reducing local jobs, and increasing infrastructure costs. For example, Texas plans to build reservoirs to address water shortages, which will cost more than $600 per acre-foot to construct. Local governments play a key role in managing water by handling issues like water allocation, shortages, and pollution.
The Colorado River basin is shared between the United States and Mexico. Within the U.S., the river is shared by several states, including Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and California. The Colorado River Basin shows conflicts over water management between local governments. Many groups, including private companies and organizations, are involved in water politics. Cooperation at the local level can lead to economic benefits by sharing costs and risks for infrastructure. Good water management ensures fair water distribution that supports farming and irrigation.
Human Rights
Water is essential for human survival and well-being. No human activity can continue without water, whether used directly or indirectly. The United Nations has stated that access to water is a basic human right, as outlined in Articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant, which protects human rights globally. The Millennium Development Goals, established in 2000, included fair sharing and distribution of water as a key objective. The United Nations and Millennium Development Goals oppose the privatization of water because water is considered a universal human right, and all people have the right to use water. Equal access to water means no person should have more rights to water than another at the most basic level. Selling water is not allowed or justified by the United Nations because water is a shared human right. The right to water was created to help people in poor countries gain fair access to water, reducing illness and death. Water rights also support environmental protection, economic growth, and improved water delivery systems.
Many agreements have been made to reduce inequality and conflict over water use. However, international leaders still struggle to create effective agreements for fair water distribution. For example, there are about 275 river basins and 270 groundwater sources managed by policies that involve two or more countries. Despite these policies, conflicts over water have occurred due to unequal distribution. More than 300 international treaties have been signed to address water sharing, but water management and distribution remain unresolved. Current policies and agreements are not enough to handle water-related issues between countries. The United Nations has not created a plan to penalize countries involved in water conflicts. Without strong enforcement, countries may not follow rules, leading to inefficient water use. Countries and groups have asked the United Nations to create clear rules and penalties for unfair water sharing and distribution.
As water becomes less available, the need for policies and agreements to manage water use grows. Bilateral and multilateral agreements are especially important for developing countries because water is scarce, and they are most likely to face shortages. These agreements aim to ensure everyone has access to water as a basic human right. Wealthier countries may trade resources for water, but developing countries often lack this ability and may fall behind. Without agreements, some developing countries might resort to war to secure water. Water conflicts can occur because water is needed for survival, and shortages can cause economic, environmental, and health problems, including illness and death. The United Nations highlights water as a human right but has not created a policy that effectively balances water sharing and distribution.
Hydropsychology
The process of creating policies and agreements becomes more complex when considering hydropsychology. Hydropsychology refers to the study of how water is used at the individual or small-scale level. This approach is helpful because it focuses on water use at a local level. Hydropsychology is often described as a bottom-up method, while hydropolitics, or water politics, is a top-down method. In the past, hydropsychology received little attention because leaders focused on international water sharing rather than local water use. Today, leaders are calling for more attention to hydropsychology because it significantly affects water scarcity. For example, the United States has plenty of water, which allows for local water management that supports activities like water parks, which benefit the economy. In contrast, many countries lack access to clean water, and their situation may worsen as water supplies decrease. Hydropsychology is important because it helps determine how much water is used at the local level. Using water for recreation instead of sustainability has increased interest in hydropsychology, as there are large differences in water availability between countries. Some countries use water freely for fun, while others struggle to meet basic needs. Effective water management and allocation address these issues. Hydropsychology shows that the needs of individuals and communities in certain areas may take priority over the fair distribution of water as a human right. However, countries can use water as they choose, and international agreements help prevent conflicts by promoting fair water practices.
A more balanced approach to water-sharing and allocation has been proposed, combining large-scale international policies with smaller-scale local policies (hydropsychology) instead of focusing on just one method. This approach would involve creating policies at both community and national levels to address water-sharing and allocation. Currently, hydropolitics studies water at the international level, while hydropsychology studies water at the local level. The failure of hydropolitics alone is shown through past and present conflicts between nations that share water. Combining hydropolitics and hydropsychology would help leaders address water-sharing issues. Both approaches have different methods, and combining them can create a more complete solution. Together, they can help manage challenges like water trading, connecting rivers, building large dams, and dealing with climate change. The advantage lies in the idea that water use begins at the individual level, which influences government and institutional actions. International leaders pay little attention to local matters but have knowledge about global policies. Local communities, on the other hand, focus less on international issues but understand local water use. Combining these perspectives helps each level address the gaps in the other’s understanding. It is important to note that how people use water at the local level affects government decisions and future international agreements. Reconciling hydropolitics and hydropsychology is essential for managing water-sharing. The importance of hydropsychology was overlooked in the past, but it is now clearly important for the present and future.
Privatization
Privatization of water companies has been debated because of poor water quality, higher prices, and ethical issues. In Bolivia, the International Monetary Fund proposed privatizing water companies in 2000, which led to protests in Cochabamba. These protests forced Bechtel, a U.S. engineering company from San Francisco, to leave. Suez, a water company, has reduced its presence in South America due to similar protests in cities like Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and Córdoba, Argentina. Protesters opposed Suez’s plan to raise water prices by up to 500%. Suez operates water services in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Mexico. Bolivian officials said Suez failed to connect enough homes to water lines and charged up to $455 per connection, which is about three times the average monthly salary of an office worker, according to The Mercury News.
In South Africa, privatization of water services led to a cholera outbreak that killed 200 people. In 1997, World Bank experts helped the Philippine government privatize the water system in Manila. By 2003, water prices rose by 81% in the east zone and 36% in the west zone of the Philippines. As privatization made services more expensive and less efficient, poor households had less access to clean water. In 2003, the Freedom from Debt Coalition reported that reduced access to clean water caused cholera and other stomach illnesses.
Water privatization is a method where private companies, instead of government agencies, manage water supply. This process involves transferring water management from the public sector to private companies through privatization and selling water services. Governments give control of water management to private organizations. Private companies distribute water based on economic goals, such as making a profit.
Historically, water privatization has caused conflicts, protests, and even wars. The United Nations states that access to clean drinking water is a basic human right.
In Mexico City, privatization was used to address poor water management by the public sector. Before privatization, Mexico City lost up to 40% of its water due to leaks. In 1994, the city privatized its water services through the Distrito Federal to fix water shortages. At the time, economic and environmental pressures pushed the Party of the Democratic Revolution to adopt privatization. Mexico City is one of the few places where privatization improved water quality. From 1994 to 2003, multinational companies improved water services, while the public sector managed infrastructure. Recently, however, privatization in Mexico City has faced challenges due to disagreements between the public and private sectors, slowing service improvements.
In 1999, Bolivia privatized its water supply in Cochabamba to a company called Sempa. Later, Bolivia signed a $2.5 billion agreement with Aguas del Tunari for the city’s water system. This privatization led to the Cochabamba Water War, which began in 1999 and ended in 2000. The war involved protests and violence because residents opposed higher water costs. Aguas del Tunari promised to provide electricity and irrigation, and Bechtel, a major investor, claimed privatization would improve water and sewage services. However, water prices increased by 35%. Law 2029, passed by the Bolivian government, gave private companies exclusive control over water in Cochabamba. The situation worsened when water costs doubled or tripled in some areas due to the Misicuni Dam project and debts from Sempa. Protests shut down the city for four days. Peaceful demonstrations led by Oscar Olivera turned violent, leading to a state of emergency. The Cochabamba Water War ended with President Hugo Banzer resigning, returning Bolivia to a situation similar to before privatization.