Vertical farming is a method of growing crops in stacked layers, both vertically and horizontally. It often uses controlled-environment agriculture, which helps plants grow better, and soilless farming methods like hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. Structures that can house vertical farming systems include buildings, shipping containers, underground tunnels, and old mine shafts.

The modern idea of vertical farming was introduced in 1999 by Dickson Despommier, a professor at Columbia University. He and his students designed a skyscraper that could feed 50,000 people. Though this design has not been built, it helped spread awareness about vertical farming. Today, vertical farming combined with advanced technologies, such as special LED lights, produces over 10 times more crops than traditional farming methods.

A major benefit of vertical farming is that it produces more crops using less land. It also allows farmers to grow many different types of crops at the same time, since plants do not share the same space. Crops grown indoors are protected from bad weather, reducing losses from extreme or unexpected weather. Additionally, because vertical farming uses little land, it has less impact on local plants and animals, helping to protect wildlife.

Vertical farming faces challenges, including high initial costs compared to traditional farms. It cannot grow all types of crops but can be efficient for expensive crops like salad vegetables. These systems also use a lot of energy, especially from lights like LEDs. Buildings must carefully control temperature, humidity, and water. If non-clean electricity is used to meet energy needs, vertical farms might create more pollution than traditional farms or greenhouses. One solution is to use agrivoltaic-powered vertical farming in structures like agrotunnels. This allows crops to grow under solar panels, and the electricity from the panels can power the farming system.

Types

The term "vertical farming" was introduced by Gilbert Ellis Bailey in 1915 in his book Vertical Farming. At that time, he used the term to describe farming with a focus on soil origin, its nutrients, and the idea of plants as "vertical" life forms, especially their underground root systems. Today, "vertical farming" usually means growing plants in layers, such as in tall buildings, old warehouses, or shipping containers.

Architect Ken Yeang proposed and built mixed-use skyscrapers. He suggested that instead of completely sealed, mass-produced farms, plants should be grown in open-air skyscrapers that combine living spaces and farming. This approach emphasizes personal or community use, rather than large-scale farming to supply an entire city.

Ecologist Dickson Despommier believes vertical farming is environmentally beneficial. He argues that growing plants in skyscrapers uses less energy and creates less pollution compared to farming on natural landscapes. He claims that shifting to vertical farms could allow farmland to return to forests, helping reduce climate change effects. He also states that natural landscapes are too polluted for safe farming, and vertical farming could reduce risks like pests.

Despommier’s idea of vertical farming began in 1999 at Columbia University. It involves growing large amounts of plants in skyscrapers for commercial use.

Several companies have created systems using stacked, recycled shipping containers in cities. These containers act as modular, climate-controlled spaces for growing plants. Stacking them increases the amount of produce grown per square foot. However, reaching the upper levels of the stacked containers can be difficult and costly.

Freight Farms developed the "Greenery," a complete system inside a shipping container that includes vertical hydroponics, LED lights, and climate controls. Podponics built a vertical farm in Atlanta with over 100 stacked "growpods," but the company went bankrupt in May 2016.

In 2017, TerraFarms created a system using 40-foot shipping containers. These containers used computer vision and artificial intelligence to monitor plants and were controlled remotely. It was reported that this system matched the cost of traditional outdoor farming, with each container producing the same amount of food as three to five acres of farmland. The system used 97% less water by recycling water and capturing evaporated water from air conditioning.

Growing plants in abandoned mine shafts is called "deep farming." This method uses the stable underground temperatures and locations near cities. It could also use nearby groundwater, lowering the cost of bringing water to the farm.

Technology

Lighting can come from natural sources or from LEDs. In 2018, commercial LEDs worked at about 28% efficiency, which keeps the cost of growing food high and makes it hard for vertical farms to compete in areas where vegetables are already cheap. Energy costs can be lowered because using all colors of light is not needed. Instead, red and blue or purple light can be produced with less electricity.

History

One of the earliest drawings of a tall building that grows food was published in Life Magazine in 2009. The drawings show homes and farms stacked on top of each other in a farming area. This idea appears in Rem Koolhaas’s book Delirious New York. Koolhaas described this concept as "The Skyscraper as Utopian device for the production of unlimited numbers of virgin sites on a metropolitan location."

Early architectural plans that helped develop vertical farming (VF) include Le Corbusier’s Immeubles-Villas (1922) and SITE’s Highrise of Homes (1972). SITE’s Highrise of Homes is similar to a 1909 Life Magazine idea. Examples of tower hydroponic systems are shown in The Glass House by John Hix. Photos of vertical farms at the School of Gardeners in Langenlois, Austria, and a glass tower at the Vienna International Horticulture Exhibition (1964) prove that vertical farms existed before. The technology that makes vertical farming possible comes from the history of greenhouses and hydroponic systems. Early hydroponic buildings combined hydroponic systems with building designs. These systems developed from greenhouse technology. The British Interplanetary Society created a hydroponic system for use on the Moon, and other building designs were made during early space exploration.

The Armenian tower hydroponic systems are the first built examples of vertical farms. They are described in Hydroponics: The Bengal System by Sholto Douglas, first published in 1951. The book includes data from what was then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and the Indian state of West Bengal.

Later examples include Ken Yeang’s Bioclimatic Skyscraper (Menara Mesiniaga, built 1992); MVRDV’s PigCity (2000); MVRDV’s Meta City/Datatown (1998–2000); and Pich-Aguilera’s Garden Towers (2001). Ken Yeang is best known for promoting the idea of a "mixed-use" Bioclimatic Skyscraper, which combines living spaces and food production.

Dickson Despommier is a professor of environmental health sciences and microbiology. He reintroduced the topic of vertical farming in 1999 with graduate students in a medical ecology class. He suggested that a 30-floor farm on one city block could provide food for 50,000 people, including vegetables, fruit, eggs, and meat. He explained that hydroponic crops could grow on upper floors, while lower floors could house chickens and fish that eat plant waste.

Although some of Despommier’s ideas have been questioned by scientists and engineers, he helped popularize the idea that food production can change. Critics argued that the energy needed for artificial lighting, heating, and other operations might outweigh the benefits of having farms close to where food is consumed.

Despommier first asked his class to feed the entire population of Manhattan (about 2,000,000 people) using only 5 hectares (13 acres) of rooftop gardens. The class found that rooftop gardening could feed only 2% of the population. Dissatisfied with this result, Despommier suggested growing plants indoors in vertical layers. By 2001, the first outline of a vertical farm was introduced. In an interview, Despommier explained how vertical farms would work.

Architectural designs were created independently by designers Chris Jacobs, Andrew Kranis, and Gordon Graff. Media attention began with an article in New York magazine, followed by other articles, radio, and television features.

In 2011, The Plant in Chicago built an anaerobic digester into the building. This system allows the farm to operate without relying on the energy grid. It also recycles waste from nearby businesses that would otherwise go to landfills.

As of 2014, Vertical Fresh Farms was operating in Buffalo, New York, specializing in salad greens, herbs, and sprouts. In March, the world’s largest vertical farm opened in Scranton, Pennsylvania, built by Green Spirit Farms (GSF). The farm is in a single-story building covering 3.25 hectares, with six layers of racks holding 17 million plants. The farm plans to grow 14 lettuce crops per year, along with spinach, kale, tomatoes, peppers, basil, and strawberries. Water is collected from the air using a dehumidifier.

The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) operates an 18-story project that produces genetically modified plants that make proteins useful for vaccines.

Plenty has designed a new AI-controlled modular grow system for multiple crops. They are opening a farm in Chesterfield, Virginia, that will grow more than 1.8 million kilograms (4 million pounds) of strawberries each year. The farm uses 97% less land and 97% less water than traditional farming.

In August 2025, the US-based vertical farm company 80 Acres Farms merged with Soil Organics. The company operates seven vertical farms in the United States, producing up to 20 million pounds of hydroponic produce per year.

Advantages

Many of the possible benefits of vertical farming (VF) come from using large-scale hydroponic or aeroponic growing methods. These methods grow plants without soil, using water and air instead.

A 2018 study found that the value of four benefits provided by plants in cities, such as cleaning the air and reducing flooding, was about $33 billion each year. The study also predicted that cities could produce 100 to 180 million tonnes of food yearly, save 14 to 15 billion kilowatt-hours of energy, store 100,000 to 170,000 tonnes of nitrogen, and reduce stormwater runoff by 45 to 57 billion cubic metres annually. These benefits, including food production, energy savings, and pollution control, could be worth up to $80 to $160 billion yearly.

It is expected that by 2048, the world’s population will grow by 3 billion people, with nearly 80% living in cities. Vertical farms could help reduce the need to create new farmland.

Unlike traditional farming in non-tropical areas, indoor farming can grow crops all year. This method increases the productivity of farmland by 4 to 6 times, depending on the crop. For example, strawberries could be grown up to 30 times more productively.

If crops are eaten where they are grown, long-distance transportation would decrease. This could reduce spoilage, pests, and energy use. Globally, about 30% of harvested crops are wasted due to spoilage or pests, though this rate is lower in developed countries.

Despommier suggests that using smaller, more nutritious plants, crops that grow year-round, and special plant holders could allow a 30-story building with a 2-hectare base to produce food equal to 1,000 hectares of traditional farming.

Traditional farming depends on weather conditions and can be harmed by extreme events like floods, droughts, or wildfires. For example, floods in the U.S. have caused billions of dollars in crop losses and soil damage. Changes in rainfall and temperature could reduce India’s farming output by 30% by the end of the century.

Vertical farming is mostly unaffected by weather, though it can still be damaged by earthquakes or tornadoes.

In cold regions like Alaska and northern Canada, traditional farming is difficult. Remote communities often face food shortages because fresh food must be shipped long distances, which is costly and unhealthy. Container-based farms can grow food locally, reducing costs and improving nutrition. For example, farms in Churchill, Manitoba, and Unalaska, Alaska, already operate in these areas. These farms are less likely to be disrupted by events like floods, which once caused food prices to rise in Churchill.

Each vertical farm could allow up to 20 units of traditional farmland to return to its natural state, as vertical farms are more productive.

Vertical farming reduces the need for farmland, saving natural resources. It avoids deforestation and desertification caused by farming. Indoor farming also reduces soil damage and emissions by eliminating the need for heavy machinery.

Fertilizers like phosphorus are becoming scarce, threatening traditional farming. Vertical farms use closed systems that keep nutrients from being lost, unlike traditional farming, where nutrients wash away.

Reducing human activity in natural areas may help protect wildlife. Traditional farming harms animals, such as reducing wood mouse populations from 25 per hectare to 5 per hectare. Vertical farming causes much less harm to wildlife.

Traditional farming is dangerous for workers, who face risks like exposure to germs, pesticides, and injuries from machinery. Vertical farming reduces these dangers. The modern food system often makes unhealthy food cheaper than fresh produce, leading to health issues like obesity and diabetes.

Food insecurity is a major cause of poverty. Vertical farming can help grow culturally important foods sustainably, supporting communities in overcoming poverty.

With other technologies and practices, vertical farming could help cities grow without relying on outside food sources. This would allow cities to expand while staying self-sufficient.

Vertical farms could use methane digesters to create energy. These systems would turn organic waste into biogas, which can be burned to generate electricity for the farm.

Problems

Vertical farms need a lot of money to start, and some new companies have not made money before closing down. Some people are unsure if vertical farming can be profitable. The economic and environmental benefits of vertical farming depend partly on reducing food miles, which is the distance food travels from the farm to the consumer. However, a recent study found that transportation is only a small part of the costs of providing food to cities. The study said, "food miles are, at best, a marketing fad." This means vertical farms would need to lower costs or charge more to stay in cities.

If vertical farms use fossil fuels for power, it could harm the environment more than traditional farming. Even building low-carbon energy sources for vertical farms might not be better than keeping traditional farms and using less coal.

Building a vertical farm covering 60 hectares could cost more than $100 million. Office space in major cities like Tokyo, Moscow, Mumbai, Dubai, Milan, Zurich, and São Paulo can cost between $1850 and $880 per square meter.

Developers of the TerraFarm system, made from used shipping containers, said their system costs the same as traditional outdoor farming.

During the growing season, the sun hits vertical surfaces at a steep angle, giving crops less light than on flat land. Extra light would be needed. Bruce Bugbee said the energy needed for artificial light in vertical farms would make them less competitive than farms using only natural light. George Monbiot calculated that providing enough light to grow one loaf of bread would cost about $15. An article in The Economist said, "even though crops in a glass skyscraper get some natural sunlight, it won’t be enough" and "the cost of artificial lights would make indoor farming too expensive."

Since vertical farms are controlled environments, heating and cooling costs would be similar to those of other tall buildings. Systems for water and elevators are needed to move nutrients and water. In the northern United States, heating with fossil fuels can cost over $200,000 per hectare.

Jones Food Company in Gloucestershire, England, opened a farm in 2024 with 14,500 square meters of growing space, powered only by renewable electricity. The company did not make money and went into administration in April 2025.

Depending on how electricity is generated, greenhouse produce can create more greenhouse gases than field produce, mainly because of higher energy use. Vertical farms use more energy per kilogram than regular greenhouses, mostly from lighting. Pollution depends on how energy is produced.

Greenhouses often increase carbon dioxide levels to three to four times normal levels. This boosts plant growth by 50%, leading to higher yields. Some greenhouses burn fossil fuels to add carbon dioxide, as other sources like furnace emissions can harm plants. This means vertical farms would need a carbon dioxide source, likely from burning fuel. Ventilation systems might let carbon dioxide escape into the air.

Greenhouse growers use the way plants respond to light cycles to control growth stages. Lights are often kept on after sunset or before sunrise. Single-story greenhouses have been criticized for causing light pollution.

Hydroponic greenhouses regularly change water, creating waste with fertilizers and pesticides that must be disposed of. Spreading this waste on nearby farmland or wetlands is harder for urban vertical farms.

Technologies and devices

Vertical farming uses different physical methods to work well. These technologies and tools must work together as a system to make vertical farming possible. Many methods are being studied and tested. The most common ones include:

• Greenhouses
• The Folkewall and other special building designs for growing plants
• Aeroponics
• Farming robots
• Aquaponics
• Composting
• Controlled environment farming
• Flower pots
• Grow lights
• Hydroponics
• Phytoremediation
• Precision agriculture
• Skyscrapers

Vertical farming around the world

Many cities around the world have shown interest in creating vertical farms. These include Incheon (South Korea), Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates), Dongtan (China), New York City, Portland, Oregon, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Seattle, Surrey, B.C., Toronto, Paris, Bangalore, Dubai, Shanghai, and Beijing. Vertical farming systems have been tested in places such as Canada (London), UK (Paignton), Israel, Singapore, USA (Chicago), Germany (Munich), UK (London), Japan, and UK (Lincolnshire).

In 2009, the first test system for vertical farming was built at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park in the United Kingdom. This project demonstrated vertical farming and helped study ways to grow food in cities while protecting the environment. The food produced is used to feed zoo animals, and the project also helps evaluate farming systems and teaches people about better land use practices that support biodiversity and ecosystems.

In 2010, the Green Zionist Alliance proposed a plan at the 36th World Zionist Congress. The plan asked the Jewish National Fund in Israel to develop vertical farms in the country.

In 2012, the first commercial vertical farm opened in Singapore. Sky Greens Farms built it, and it has three levels. The farm now uses more than 100 towers that are 9 meters tall.

In 2013, the Association for Vertical Farming (AVF) was started in Munich, Germany. By May 2015, the AVF had chapters in Europe, Asia, the USA, Canada, and the UK. This group brings together farmers and inventors to improve food security and sustainability. The AVF works to develop vertical farming by organizing events like international workshops and summits.

In 2022, the largest vertical farm in the world opened in Dubai. It produces over 1 million kilograms of leafy greens each year. This farm uses 95% less water than traditional farming methods and saves 250 million liters of water annually.

In Kyoto, Japan, Nuvege (pronounced "new veggie") operates a vertical farm with no windows. Its LED lights are set to support two types of chlorophyll, one that prefers red light and the other that prefers blue. Nuvege produces 6 million lettuce heads each year.

In Lebanon, vertical farming has been developed with help from local groups Basmeh and Zeitooneh. This work received funding from CAFOD, an organization in the UK.