A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a type of hybrid electric vehicle that has a rechargeable battery. This battery can be charged using a charging cable connected to an external power source, such as a wall outlet, or by an on-board generator powered by an internal combustion engine. PHEVs are mostly used in passenger cars, but they also come in sports cars, commercial vehicles, vans, trucks, buses, trains, motorcycles, mopeds, military vehicles, and boats.
Like battery electric vehicles (BEVs), PHEVs can use energy from renewable sources, such as solar, wind, or hydroelectric power, to operate with little or no emissions. If they use energy from fossil fuel power plants, they reduce emissions from the car’s tailpipe by moving them to the power plant. Compared to traditional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs usually have larger batteries that can be charged from any location with access to the electrical grid. This allows them to be more energy-efficient and cost-effective than relying only on their on-board generator. PHEVs also offer longer and more frequent all-electric driving ranges. Their electric motors often provide more power, faster acceleration, and lower operating costs. Although PHEVs have smaller batteries than all-electric vehicles of the same weight—because they also include a combustion engine and hybrid drivetrain—they can switch to using their gasoline or diesel engine if the battery runs out. This helps reduce concerns about running out of power, especially in areas with limited charging stations.
Mass-produced PHEVs have been available for sale in China and the United States since 2010. The Chevrolet Volt was the most popular PHEV until it was replaced by the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV in 2019. By 2021, BYD Auto became the world’s largest PHEV manufacturer. As of May 2024, BYD sold more than 3.6 million PHEVs in total. The BYD Song DM line of SUVs accounted for over 1.05 million of these sales.
China has the largest number of PHEVs in the world, with a total of 9.31 million units sold (including EREV models) by December 2024. In 2024, more than 76% of all PHEVs sold globally were purchased in China. The five largest PHEV manufacturers worldwide are all Chinese companies: BYD, Geely, Chery, Li Auto, and Changan.
History
The Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid, made as early as 1899, was the first hybrid electric car. Early hybrids could be charged from an outside power source before being used. The term "plug-in hybrid" now means a hybrid vehicle that can be charged using a standard electrical wall socket. The term "plug-in hybrid electric vehicle" was created by UC Davis Professor Andrew Frank, who is known as the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid."
The July 1969 issue of Popular Science had an article about the General Motors XP-883 plug-in hybrid. This concept car had six 12-volt lead–acid batteries in the trunk and a DC electric motor that powered the front wheels. The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120-volt AC outlet to recharge.
In 2003, Renault started selling the Elect'road, a plug-in series-hybrid version of its popular Kangoo, in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% of its range in about 4 hours. After selling around 500 vehicles, mostly in France, Norway, and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.
As hybrid vehicles became available and gas prices in the United States began rising around 2002, interest in plug-in hybrids grew. Some plug-in hybrids were made by modifying existing hybrids. For example, in 2004, CalCars converted a Prius to add lead acid batteries, giving it an electric range of up to 15 km (9 mi).
In 2006, both Toyota and General Motors announced plans for plug-in hybrids. GM's Saturn Vue project was canceled, but Toyota's plug-in hybrid was approved for use on roads in Japan in 2007.
In 2007, Quantum Technologies and Fisker Coachbuild, LLC announced a partnership to create Fisker Automotive. Fisker planned to build a luxury PHEV called the Fisker Karma, which had an electric range of 60 km (37 mi), and was scheduled to be released in late 2009.
In 2007, Aptera Motors introduced the Typ-1, a two-seater car. That company stopped operating in December 2011.
In 2007, Chinese carmaker BYD Auto, owned by a major mobile phone battery company, announced it would produce a PHEV sedan with an electric range of 60 km (37 mi) in China by the second half of 2008. BYD displayed the car at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit in January 2008. Based on its F6 sedan, the car used lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries instead of lithium-ion batteries and could be recharged to 70% capacity in 10 minutes.
In 2007, Ford delivered the first Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid from a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs to Southern California Edison. As part of this program, Ford also created the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV, which was delivered in June 2008. This fleet of plug-in vehicles has been tested with utility companies in the U.S. and Canada. In the first two years of the program, the fleet traveled more than 75,000 miles. In August 2009, Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, and Ford planned to add this technology to all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes. Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.
On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced it would sell lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010, but later said they would be available to commercial fleets in 2009.
On March 27, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) changed its rules, requiring carmakers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids between 2012 and 2014. This replaced an earlier rule requiring 25,000 zero-emission vehicles, reducing that number to 5,000. On June 26, Volkswagen announced it would produce plug-in hybrids based on the Volkswagen Golf. Volkswagen calls its PHEVs "TwinDrive." In September, Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs. On September 23, Chrysler announced it had built prototypes for a plug-in Jeep Wrangler, a plug-in Chrysler Town and Country minivan, and an all-electric Dodge sports car. It said one of these vehicles would go into production.
On October 3, the U.S. passed the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. This law provided tax credits for buying plug-in electric vehicles with battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours. Later, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 modified these credits, requiring battery capacity to be over 5 kWh and phasing them out after an automaker sold 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.
On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto started selling the BYD F3DM in China, making it the first production plug-in hybrid sold worldwide. It was initially only available to businesses and government customers. Sales to the public began in Shenzhen in March 2010, but because the F3DM costs nearly twice as much as a regular car, BYD expects government subsidies to help make it affordable for personal buyers.
Toyota tested 600 pre-production Prius Plug-ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010. Volvo built two demonstration versions of the Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrid in 2009 but did not produce it. The V60 Plug-in Hybrid was released in 2011 and was available for sale.
In October 2010, Lotus Engineering introduced the Lotus CityCar, a plug-in series hybrid concept car that could run on ethanol, methanol, or regular gasoline.
GM launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and began selling it to customers in December 2010. Its European version, the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera, was released in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012. GM calls the Chevrolet Volt a "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle."
The first deliveries of the Fisker Karma took place in July 2011, and sales to customers began in November 2011. The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012, followed by the U.S. in February 2012. Sales of the Prius PHV in Europe started in late June 2012. The Ford C-Max Energi was released in the U.S. in October
Technology
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) use the same three basic systems as traditional hybrids. A series hybrid uses only electric motors to move the car. A parallel hybrid uses both the internal combustion engine and electric motors at the same time. A series-parallel hybrid can use either system. Unlike regular hybrids, which charge their batteries only through the engine, PHEVs can get most of their battery power from outside sources like charging stations.
These vehicles use two types of systems to recover energy.
The Mercedes-AMG ONE is a plug-in dual hybrid.
The Mercedes-Benz C-Class (W206) and the Mercedes C254/X254 have an electrically assisted turbocharger and a device called MGU-H.
The Honda CR-V e:FCEV is a plug-in hybrid that also uses a fuel cell. It has a front-mounted electric motor, two hydrogen tanks with a total capacity of 4.3 kg (9.5 lb), a 17.7 kWh battery that can be charged from outside the car, and no internal combustion engine.
A battery charger can be inside the car or outside. An on-board charger changes electricity from AC to DC to charge the battery. These chargers are limited by their size, weight, and the power of regular outlets. External chargers can be larger and more powerful, but the car must return to the charger. Some high-speed chargers can be used by multiple vehicles.
Using the electric motor’s inverter allows the motor to act as a transformer, with the car’s existing inverter serving as a charger. Since these parts are already in the car and designed for high power, they can create a strong on-board charger without adding weight or size. AC Propulsion uses this method, called "reductive charging."
PHEVs operate in two main modes: charge-depleting and charge-sustaining. A mix of these is called blended or mixed mode. These vehicles can drive long distances using only electric power, either at low speeds or all speeds. These modes control how the battery is used, which affects the battery’s size and type.
Charge-depleting mode lets a PHEV run only on electric power until the battery is nearly empty. Then, the engine or fuel cell starts. This is the vehicle’s all-electric range. Battery electric vehicles can only use this mode, which limits their range.
Mixed mode combines different driving styles. For example, a car might start with charge-depleting mode on city roads, switch to blended mode on highways, and return to all-electric mode after leaving the highway. This is different from a trip that only uses the all-electric range.
Most PHEVs have two additional charge-sustaining modes:
Battery hold: The electric motor is disabled, and the car runs only on the engine. This keeps battery power for later use, and regenerative braking still helps charge the battery. Some PHEVs reduce power to battery-dependent systems like heating to save energy. The engine can override the motor if full power is needed.
Self charge: The motor is connected to the battery and acts as a generator while the car moves, recharging the battery. However, this uses more fuel because the engine must power the car and charge the battery. This is useful when charging stations are unavailable.
The best battery size depends on whether the goal is to save fuel, reduce costs, or lower emissions. A 2009 study found that for short trips (10 miles or less), a small battery with a 7-mile all-electric range is best. For longer trips, hybrid vehicles may be more cost-effective.
PHEVs require more battery charging and discharging than regular hybrids. This can shorten battery life, but some experts believe PHEVs will become common. Challenges like battery size, heat, cost, and safety need solutions. New battery technology is being developed to increase energy storage and battery life.
Some early lithium-ion batteries used lithium–cobalt oxide, which is expensive and can release oxygen if overcharged. Replacing cobalt with iron phosphates makes batteries safer. At 2007 prices, these batteries break even after 6–10 years of use. Plug-in hybrids may take longer to pay off due to larger, more expensive batteries.
Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled. Toyota, for example, pays dealers $200 for each returned battery. PHEVs use larger battery packs than regular hybrids, requiring more resources. Some companies, like Pacific Gas and Electric, suggest using old batteries for energy storage. General Motors has also explored using recycled batteries for power storage.
Ultracapacitors, or supercapacitors, are used in some PHEVs, like AFS Trinity’s prototype. They store energy quickly, help batteries stay cool, and extend battery life. The CSIRO’s UltraBattery combines a supercapacitor and a lead–acid battery into one unit, creating a longer-lasting, cheaper, and more powerful battery for PHEVs.
Some companies are modifying regular cars into PHEVs. This usually involves increasing the battery size and adding an on-board charger. The car’s software is often updated to support these changes.
Target market
In recent years, the number of all-electric vehicles sold in the United States has increased because of government support, such as financial help and tax benefits. In Georgia, where more Nissan Leaf cars are sold than anywhere else, the popularity of the Leaf has been influenced by special offers and incentives. According to research, 60% of people think a battery range of less than 160 km (99 miles) is not enough, even though only 2% of drivers need a range longer than that daily. Among current all-electric vehicles, only the Tesla Model S (with its most expensive version offering a range of 265 miles (426 km) in tests by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) has a range that is much higher than this threshold. In 2021, the 2022 Nissan Leaf model with a 60 kWh battery has an estimated range of 212 miles (341 km) according to the EPA.
Plug-in hybrids combine the benefits of traditional hybrids, such as longer range and the ability to refuel with gasoline, with the ability to use battery power for most daily trips. In 2009, the average work commute in the United States was 11.8 miles (19.0 km), while in England and Wales in 2011, the average was slightly shorter at 9.3 miles (15 km). However, increasing the all-electric range of a plug-in hybrid adds weight, cost, and reduces space for passengers or cargo, so there is no single ideal range. A graph from Popular Mechanics magazine shows the all-electric range (in miles) for four popular plug-in hybrids in the United States.
A key design goal for the Chevrolet Volt was to have an all-electric range of 40 miles (64 km). This range was chosen to keep the battery small and lower costs, and because research showed that 78% of U.S. commuters travel 40 miles (64 km) or less daily. This range would allow most trips to be powered by electricity, with charging done at home overnight. To achieve this, the Volt uses a lithium-ion battery with a storage capacity of 16 kWh, assuming the battery is used until it reaches 30% charge.
In October 2014, General Motors reported that Volt owners drove about 62.5% of their trips using only electricity, based on data from over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km) traveled by Volts. In May 2016, Ford reported that drivers of its electrified vehicles traveled an average of 13,500 miles (21,700 km) annually, with about half of those miles using only electricity. Ford noted that the average daily commute for Fusion Energi drivers was 42 miles (68 km). Ford also said that most customers charge their vehicles only at home.
The 2015 EPA report on automotive technology estimated that the following plug-in hybrids would use electricity for the following percentages of miles: 83% for the BMW i3 REx, 66% for the Chevrolet Volt, 45% for Ford Energi models, 43% for the McLaren P1, 37% for the BMW i8, and 29% for the Toyota Prius PHV. A 2014 study by the Idaho National Laboratory found that Volt owners traveled an average of 9,112 miles in all-electric mode (e-miles) per year, while Leaf owners traveled 9,697 e-miles per year, despite the Volt having a shorter all-electric range than the Leaf.
Comparison to non-plug-in hybrids
Plug-in hybrids can be more efficient than regular hybrids because their gasoline engine runs less often, allowing it to work closer to its best performance. A Toyota Prius typically converts fuel into energy at about 30% efficiency, which is lower than the engine's maximum efficiency of 38%. In contrast, a plug-in hybrid with 70 km (43 miles) of electric range would use its gasoline engine less frequently, letting it operate near its peak efficiency more often. This is because the battery can handle the vehicle’s power needs during times when the gasoline engine would otherwise run inefficiently. The actual efficiency depends on factors like electricity generation, battery charging and discharging, motor performance, how the vehicle is used, and how often it can be recharged through the electrical grid.
Each kilowatt-hour of battery storage can replace up to 50 U.S. gallons (190 liters) of gasoline or diesel fuel each year. Electricity comes from many sources, which makes it more reliable for energy use.
The fuel economy of plug-in hybrids depends on how the vehicle’s power system operates, the distance it can travel using only electricity, and how often it is driven between charges. If no gasoline is used, the miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. The first plug-in hybrid sold in the U.S., the 2011 Chevrolet Volt, has an all-electric range of 35 miles (56 km) and can travel an additional 344 miles (554 km) using gasoline. Its fuel economy is 93 MPG-e when using only electricity, 37 miles per gallon (mpg) when using only gasoline, and an overall combined rating of 60 mpg equivalent (MPG-e). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also included a table on the Volt’s fuel economy label showing results for five different driving scenarios, with the highest fuel economy reaching 168 mpg equivalent (MPG-e) when driving 45 miles (72 km) between charges.
Starting in 2013, the U.S. required more detailed fuel economy and environmental labels for vehicles. Because plug-in hybrids can operate in two or three modes—electric only, gasoline only, and a mix of both—two separate labels were created. One label applies to vehicles like the Chevrolet Volt, which can run in all-electric or gasoline-only modes. The second label applies to vehicles that use a combination of gasoline and electric power, similar to traditional hybrids.
In 1999, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) created rules for testing and reporting fuel economy for hybrid vehicles, including plug-in hybrids. Today, an SAE committee is reviewing updated testing methods for plug-in hybrids. In 2008, a study by the Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested 10 modified plug-in hybrids and found they averaged about 40.6 miles per gallon (5.8 liters per 100 km) over six months. This was lower than the technology’s potential.
Real-world tests showed that some plug-in Prius conversions may not use much less fuel than regular hybrids. For example, a fleet of plug-in Priuses with a 30-mile (48 km) all-electric range averaged 51 mpg (4.6 liters per 100 km) over 17,000 miles (27,000 km) in Seattle. Similar results were seen in a project at Google. The extra battery in these vehicles added costs of $10,000 to $11,000.
A 2014 study by researchers from Lamar University, Iowa State University, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory compared the costs of plug-in hybrids with different electric ranges (10, 20, 30, and 40 miles) to regular gasoline cars and non-plug-in hybrids. The study found that plug-in hybrids save about 60% on energy costs compared to regular cars and 40% compared to hybrids. However, for drivers who travel long distances daily, regular hybrids might be better if public charging stations are limited. The study also noted that the cost of large batteries in plug-in hybrids is hard to justify without subsidies. When gasoline prices rise to $5 per gallon, more drivers benefit from larger batteries. At $3 per gallon, a plug-in hybrid with a 10-mile (16 km) range is the cheapest option, even with a $200 battery cost per kilowatt-hour. Level-2 chargers save more on energy costs than fast chargers.
Plug-in hybrids have disadvantages, including higher costs, added weight, and larger size due to their batteries. A 2010 study by the National Research Council estimated that lithium-ion battery packs cost about $1,700 per kilowatt-hour of usable energy. A plug-in hybrid with a 10-mile (6.2 km) electric range needs about 2 kilowatt-hours, costing around $3,000. A model with a 40-mile (25 km) range requires 8 kilowatt-hours, costing about $14,000. Even with expected cost reductions by 2020, the study predicted slow market growth and limited impact on oil use or emissions before 2030 unless battery technology improves.
The same 2010 study found that while driving on electricity is cheaper than gasoline, the high upfront cost of plug-in hybrids means it takes many years to save enough on fuel to offset the price. The study also estimated that billions of dollars in government support would be needed to speed up the adoption of plug-in hybrids in the U.S.
A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy showed that battery costs dropped from $1,300 per kilowatt-hour in 2007 to $500 in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy aims to reduce battery costs to $300 per kilowatt-hour by 2015 and $125 by 2022. Lower battery costs and increased production could help plug-in hybrids compete with traditional gasoline cars.
A 2011 study by Harvard University’s Belfer Center found that the fuel savings from plug-in hybrids over their lifetime do not cover their higher purchase price. This was calculated by comparing total costs in the U.S.
Greenhouse gas emissions
The impact of PHEVs on greenhouse gas emissions is complicated. When PHEVs run in all-electric mode, they do not release harmful tailpipe pollutants from the vehicle's power source. However, the air quality benefit is often limited to the area where the vehicle is used because the electricity used to recharge the battery may come from power plants that produce pollution elsewhere. Similarly, PHEVs do not emit greenhouse gases directly from the vehicle itself, but when considering the full process from fuel production to vehicle use, the emissions depend on the type of fuel and technology used to generate electricity. For PEVs to have very low or no emissions overall, the electricity used to recharge their batteries must come from sources that do not produce pollution, such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power. However, if PEVs are charged using electricity from coal-fired power plants, they may produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than traditional gasoline-powered cars. When PHEVs use their internal combustion engine in hybrid mode, their tailpipe and greenhouse gas emissions are lower than those of conventional cars because they use fuel more efficiently.
Life cycle energy and emissions assessments
In 2009, scientists at Argonne National Laboratory used their GREET model to study the full well-to-wheels (WTW) process for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). They examined how much energy these vehicles use and how much greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions they create under different conditions. These conditions included different types of fuel used in the vehicles and different ways electricity is made to charge the batteries. The study focused on three U.S. regions: California, New York, and Illinois. These areas were chosen because they have large cities and different ways of producing energy. The study also compared results for the average energy mix in the U.S. and for electricity made from renewable sources. The results showed that the amount of petroleum used and GHG emissions varied widely depending on the fuel production methods and the electricity generation mix.
The Argonne study found that PHEVs use less petroleum energy than regular hybrid electric vehicles. As the all-electric range of PHEVs increased, more petroleum was saved and more GHG emissions were reduced, except when the electricity used to charge the vehicles came mostly from coal or oil power plants. Electricity from renewable sources led to the greatest reductions in petroleum use and GHG emissions as the all-electric range increased. The study also noted that PHEVs using biomass-based fuels (like biomass-E85 and hydrogen) might not reduce GHG emissions compared to regular hybrids if electricity is mostly made from fossil fuels.
In 2008, researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory studied oil use and GHG emissions of plug-in hybrids compared to regular hybrids for the years 2020 and 2030. They looked at the mix of power sources used in 13 U.S. regions, which included coal, natural gas, nuclear energy, and some renewable energy. A 2010 study by Argonne National Laboratory reached similar conclusions, showing that PHEVs reduce oil use but may create different GHG emissions depending on the region and the energy mix used to generate electricity for recharging.
In October 2014, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released its 2014 report on light-duty automotive technology, carbon dioxide emissions, and fuel economy trends. This was the first time the report included an analysis of alternative fuel vehicles, with a focus on plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). At that time, PEVs made up about 1% of the market, so their impact on overall fuel economy and CO₂ emissions began to be noticeable.
The EPA’s report analyzed 12 all-electric passenger cars and 10 plug-in hybrids available in 2014. To estimate emissions accurately, the study considered differences in how PHEVs operate. For example, the Chevrolet Volt can run entirely on electricity without using gasoline. Other PHEVs, like the Toyota Prius PHV, use both battery power and gasoline. The study also used a "utility factor" to estimate how often drivers would use electricity compared to gasoline, based on the size of the battery. The report included tables showing the fuel economy of these vehicles in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for each model.
The EPA also accounted for emissions from producing and distributing electricity used to charge PHEVs. Since electricity production varies by region, the EPA considered three scenarios: the lowest emissions (like in California), the average for the U.S., and the highest emissions (like in the Rockies). The report showed that electricity-related GHG emissions vary from 346 grams CO₂ per kilowatt-hour in California to 986 grams CO₂ per kilowatt-hour in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 grams CO₂ per kilowatt-hour. Tables in the report compared tailpipe emissions and combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 PHEVs available in 2014.
Most emission studies use average emission rates across regions instead of considering how electricity is produced at different times of day. A 2014 study by economists at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) developed a method to estimate electricity emissions that vary by location and time. Using data from 2007 to 2009 and focusing on the Chevrolet Volt (with a 35-mile all-electric range), the study found that emissions rates in the Upper Midwest were more than three times higher than in the Western U.S. Within regions, some hours of the day had emission rates more than twice as high as others.
When applying these findings to PHEVs, the NBER study showed that emissions from charging PEVs depend on the region and the time of day. In some areas, like the Western U.S. and Texas, driving PEVs produces less CO₂ per mile than driving a hybrid car. In other areas, like the Upper Midwest, charging PEVs during late-night hours (midnight to 4 a.m.) results in higher emissions per mile than the average car. This highlights a challenge between managing electricity demand and reducing emissions, as the cheapest times to produce electricity often involve higher emissions from coal power plants. Natural gas plants, which produce fewer emissions, are used more during peak demand times. This pattern explains why emissions are often higher at night and lower during morning and evening hours.
Production and sales
Since 2008, plug-in hybrid cars have been sold by both special companies and big car makers. The F3DM, released in China in December 2008, was the first plug-in hybrid car sold worldwide. The Chevrolet Volt, launched in the U.S. in December 2010, was the first plug-in hybrid made in large numbers by a major car company.
At the end of 2017, there were 1.2 million plug-in hybrid cars on roads worldwide. This number increased to 1.8 million in 2018, out of a total of about 5.1 million plug-in electric passenger cars globally. In December 2017, the United States had the most plug-in hybrid cars, with 360,510 units. China had 276,580, Japan had 100,860, the Netherlands had 98,220, and the United Kingdom had 88,660.
Plug-in hybrid sales grew quickly. In 2010, over 300 were sold. By 2011, sales reached almost 9,000. In 2012, sales increased to over 60,000. By 2015, almost 222,000 were sold. In December 2015, the United States had the most plug-in hybrids, with 193,770 units. In 2016, about 279,000 were sold, bringing the total number of plug-in hybrids worldwide to nearly 800,000. In 2017, 398,210 plug-in hybrids were sold, with China selling the most at 111,000 units. By the end of 2017, the total number of plug-in hybrids worldwide reached 1 million.
Over the years, more people have chosen fully electric cars instead of plug-in hybrids. In 2012, the ratio of all-electric cars to plug-in hybrids was 56:44. By 2015, it was 60:40. In 2017, it was 66:34. In 2018, it was 69:31. In 2023, the ratio was 70:30, meaning plug-in hybrids made up 30% of sales. In 2022, plug-in hybrids made up 27% of sales.
China’s share of plug-in hybrids worldwide was between 30% and 50% from 2017 to 2018. In 2020, it dropped to 25%. In 2021, it rose to 32%, and by 2022, it reached 55%. In 2023, it was 69%. From January to August 2024, China’s share was 77%, and by the third quarter of 2024, it reached 82%. In the same time, Europe’s share of plug-in hybrids increased from 28% in 2018 to 65% in 2020, but dropped to 15% in 2024.
From 2014 to 2019, a company called BYD Auto led the global plug-in hybrid market. Its share grew from 6.0% in 2020 to 39.1% in 2024. In 2025, Geely Holding became the second-largest plug-in hybrid car maker, with a 9.2% share.
As plug-in hybrid sales in China grew, car companies outside China saw their global market share drop. Volkswagen’s share peaked at 16.4% in 2020 but fell to 4.2% in 2024. BMW’s share dropped from 9.8% in 2021 to 2.2% in 2024. Stellantis’ share was highest at 8.1% in 2021 but dropped to 4.3% in 2024. Toyota’s share decreased from 9.9% in 2019 to 2.4% in 2024. Hyundai’s share dropped from 6.4% in 2019 to 1.7% in 2024.
Many countries offer financial help for buying plug-in hybrids. In the U.S., buyers can get a tax credit of up to $7,500. Some states give extra help. In the U.K., buyers can get up to £5,000 ($7,600). In 2011, 15 of 27 European Union countries gave tax benefits for electric cars. Seventeen countries also charge taxes based on a car’s carbon dioxide emissions. These benefits include tax breaks, exemptions, and payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid cars.
Laws in the U.S. support plug-in hybrids. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 included support for plug-in hybrids. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 gave