The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), also known as the red jackal, Simien jackal, or Simien fox, is a dog-like animal found in the Ethiopian Highlands, including the Simien Mountains. In southeastern Ethiopia, it is sometimes called the horse jackal. It is about the same size as a coyote and has a long, narrow skull and red and white fur. Unlike many other large dogs, which live in many places and eat a variety of foods, the Ethiopian wolf eats only certain rodents found in high mountain areas. It has very specific habitat needs and is one of the rarest dogs in the world. It is also Africa’s most endangered carnivore.

The Ethiopian wolf lives in seven separate mountain areas at heights between 3,000 and 4,500 meters. In 2011, there were between 360 and 440 adult Ethiopian wolves, with more than half living in the Bale Mountains.

The Ethiopian wolf is listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of its small population and broken-up living areas. Threats include human activity, which harms their habitat through overgrazing, and diseases and mixing with wild dogs. Conservation efforts are led by Oxford University’s Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, which works to protect the wolves through vaccinations and community education programs.

Naming

Other English names for the Ethiopian wolf include the red jackal, the Simenian fox, the Simien jackal, the Ethiopian jackal, and the Abyssinian wolf.

Historical account

The species was first scientifically described in 1835 by Eduard Rüppell, who sent a skull to the British Museum. European writers who traveled in Ethiopia during the mid-1800s (called Abyssinia by Europeans and Ze Etiyopia by its people) wrote that the animal’s skin was not worn by local people. It was believed that if any wolf hairs entered an open wound, the wearer would die. Charles Darwin suggested that this species might be the ancestor of greyhounds. For many years after, the species was rarely mentioned in Europe until the early 1900s, when Major Percy Powell-Cotton sent several skins to England from his travels in Abyssinia.

The Ethiopian wolf was recognized as needing protection in 1938 and received legal protection in 1974. The first detailed studies of the species began in the 1980s with the American-sponsored Bale Mountains Research Project. Populations in the Bale Mountains National Park were harmed by the political unrest of the Ethiopian Civil War. However, the serious decline of the species became clear in the early 1990s after a combination of hunting and a severe rabies outbreak greatly reduced wolf numbers in the Web Valley and Sanetti Plateau. In response, the IUCN changed the species’ status from endangered to critically endangered in 1994. The IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group recommended a plan focusing on education, monitoring wolf populations, and controlling rabies in domestic dogs. The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme in Bale was started in 1995 by Oxford University in partnership with the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA).

Soon after, another wolf population was found in the Central Highlands. Elsewhere, information about Ethiopian wolves remained limited. Though first described in 1835 as living in the Simien Mountains, the lack of recent data from that area suggested the species was likely declining there. Reports from the Gojjam plateau were over 100 years old. Wolves were recorded in the Arsi Mountains since the early 1900s and in the Bale Mountains in the late 1950s. In the late 1990s, the species’ status was reassessed after travel conditions in northern Ethiopia improved. Surveys showed local extinctions in Mount Choqa, Gojjam, and in all northern Afroalpine regions where agriculture is widespread and human activity is high. This discovery highlighted the importance of the Bale Mountains wolf populations for the species’ survival and the need to protect other remaining groups. A decade after the rabies outbreak, the Bale populations had fully recovered to their previous levels, leading to the species’ status being changed to endangered in 2004. Despite this, the Ethiopian wolf remains the world’s rarest canid and Africa’s most endangered carnivore.

Taxonomy and evolution

The earliest known fossil of the Ethiopian wolf was found at the Melka Wakena site in the Southeastern Ethiopian Highlands. This fossil is the right half of a jawbone and is about 1.6 to 1.4 million years old. Scientists believe that the ancestors of the Ethiopian wolf arrived in Africa from Eurasia around the same time as the ancestors of the African wild dog, about 1.8 million years ago. Over time, the Ethiopian wolf has survived many changes in its highland habitat, with its range growing and shrinking as Earth's climate changed.

In 1994, a DNA study showed that the Ethiopian wolf is more closely related to gray wolves and coyotes than to other African canids. This suggests that the Ethiopian wolf may be a living example of an ancient ancestor of gray wolves that once lived in northern Africa.

The Ethiopian wolf’s ancestors adapted to their new Afroalpine habitat, which had many rodents. Over time, they became specialized rodent hunters. This adaptation is seen in their skull shape, which includes a long head, long jaw, and widely spaced teeth. During this time, the Ethiopian wolf likely had the largest population and lived in a continuous area. However, about 15,000 years ago, the start of the current warm climate period caused their habitat to break into smaller areas, separating populations.

The Ethiopian wolf is one of two Canis species in Africa. It can be easily told apart from jackals by its larger size, longer legs, reddish fur, and white markings. Scientists John Edward Gray and Glover Morrill Allen first placed the Ethiopian wolf in its own genus, Simenia. Later, Oscar Neumann thought it was just a large fox. Juliet Clutton-Brock later showed that the Ethiopian wolf belongs in the Canis genus, based on similarities in skull shape to the side-striped jackal.

In 2015, a study of DNA from African and Eurasian canids showed that wolves and related species moved into Africa from Eurasia at least five times during the Pliocene and Pleistocene eras. This matches fossil evidence that many African canid species came from Eurasia, likely during periods of climate change. A genetic study showed that the Eurasian golden jackal (Canis aureus) split from the wolf/coyote group about 1.9 million years ago. The Ethiopian wolf split from this group slightly earlier. Other studies found that Ethiopian wolves sometimes mixed genes with African golden wolves.

In 2018, whole genome sequencing compared canids in the Canis genus. This study showed that the African golden wolf is different from the golden jackal and that the Ethiopian wolf is the most ancient relative of both. There are two distinct African golden wolf populations: one in northwestern Africa and one in eastern Africa. This suggests that Ethiopian wolves or a close relative once lived in a much larger area of Africa, allowing them to mix with other canids. Evidence shows that the eastern African golden wolf population mixed with Ethiopian wolves, making it different from the northwestern population. The ancestor of both African golden wolf populations had a mix of 72% gray wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf genes.

As of 2005, the book Mammal Species of the World Volume Three recognizes two subspecies of the Ethiopian wolf.

Description

The Ethiopian wolf is about the same size and shape as a North American coyote. It is larger than the black-backed jackal, side-striped jackal, African wolf, and has longer legs compared to these animals. Its skull is very flat, with a long facial area that makes up 58% of the skull's total length. The ears are wide, pointed, and face forward. The teeth, especially the premolars, are small and spaced apart. The canine teeth measure 14–22 mm in length, and the carnassial teeth are relatively small. The Ethiopian wolf has eight mammae, but only six are used for nursing. The front paws have five toes, including one called a dewclaw, while the hind paws have four. In the genus Canis, males are larger than females, with 20% more body mass. Adults measure 841–1,012 mm (33.1–39.8 in) in body length and 530–620 mm (21–24 in) in height. Adult males weigh 14.2–19.3 kg (31–43 lb), while females weigh 11.2–14.15 kg (24.7–31.2 lb).

The Ethiopian wolf has short guard hairs and thick underfur, which helps protect it in temperatures as low as −15 °C. Its fur is generally ochre to rusty red, with thick, pale ginger underfur. The throat, chest, and underparts are white, and there is a clear white band around the sides of the neck. The red fur and white markings have a sharp boundary. The edges of the ears are covered in thick fur, but the inside is bare. The lips, gums, and palate are black, while the lips, a small area on the cheeks, and a crescent below the eyes are white. The tail is thickly furred on the underside and has a black tip. Unlike most other canids, there is no dark patch on the supracaudal gland. The Ethiopian wolf sheds its fur during the wet season (August–October), and its coat color does not change with the seasons. However, the contrast between the red fur and white markings becomes more noticeable as the animal ages or gains higher social rank. Female Ethiopian wolves usually have lighter coats than males. During the breeding season, the female’s coat turns yellow, becomes coarser, and the tail turns brownish, losing much of its fur.

Hybrid animals from Ethiopian wolves and dogs are usually more muscular and have shorter muzzles and different coat patterns.

Behaviour

The Ethiopian wolf is a social animal that lives in family groups with up to 20 adult wolves (those older than one year), though groups of six are more common. These groups are formed by male wolves that leave their original pack and a few female wolves. Except for the breeding female, these females do not reproduce. Each group has a clear hierarchy, with displays of dominance and submission often seen. When the breeding female dies, a daughter from the same group may take her place, though this can increase the chance of inbreeding. To avoid this, some wolves may have babies with males from other groups or outside their pack. The movement of wolves from their group is limited by the lack of available habitat.

These groups live in shared areas that average 6 km (2.3 square miles) in size. In places with little food, wolves live in pairs, sometimes with pups, and defend larger areas averaging 13.4 km (5.2 square miles). Without disease, their territories remain stable, but groups may expand if another group leaves. The size of a territory depends on the number of rodents, the number of wolves in a group, and how many pups survive. Ethiopian wolves rest together in the open at night and gather for greetings and patrols at dawn, noon, and evening. They may seek shelter under rocks or behind boulders during rain. They never sleep in dens, except for nursing pups. When patrolling, they mark their territory with scents and may fight aggressively with other groups. These fights usually end with the smaller group retreating.

The mating season occurs between August and November. During courtship, the breeding male follows the female closely. The breeding female only accepts the advances of the breeding male or males from other groups. The gestation period lasts 60–62 days, with pups born between October and December. Pups are born without teeth and with closed eyes, covered in a charcoal-grey coat with a buff patch on the chest and stomach. Litters have two to six pups, which leave the den after three weeks as their dark coat changes to adult coloring. By five weeks, pups eat both milk and solid food, and stop drinking milk entirely by 10 weeks to six months. All pack members help care for and feed the pups, and lower-ranking females may nurse them. Full growth and sexual maturity are reached at two years old. Cooperative breeding and pseudopregnancy have been observed in Ethiopian wolves.

Most female wolves leave their birth group around two years old and may become "floaters" that join other groups. Breeding pairs are usually not related, which helps reduce inbreeding. Inbreeding is avoided because it weakens offspring, often due to harmful genes being expressed in offspring.

Unlike most social carnivores, Ethiopian wolves often hunt small prey alone. They are most active during the day, when rodents are also active, though they may hunt in groups to target mountain nyala calves. Major Percy-Cotton described their hunting method as digging near rodent burrows, from light scratching to completely destroying burrows and creating large mounds of dirt.

Wolves in Bale have been seen foraging near cattle herds, possibly to hide while catching rodents. They have also been observed temporarily joining groups of gelada monkeys. Solitary wolves hunt rodents among the monkeys, ignoring juvenile monkeys despite their similar size. The monkeys usually ignore the wolves but flee if they see feral dogs. The wolves are more successful at catching rodents in these areas, possibly because the monkeys' movements scare rodents out of hiding or because the presence of larger animals makes it harder for rodents to notice threats.

Ecology

The Ethiopian wolf lives in small, separate areas of Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands where Afroalpine rodents are found. Its best habitat is above the tree line, between 3,200 and 4,500 meters. Some wolves in the Bale Mountains live in montane grasslands at 3,000 meters. In the early 1900s, wolves were found at 2,500 meters in Gojjam and northwestern Shoa, but no recent sightings have been recorded below 3,000 meters. Today, farming for basic needs, which can reach up to 3,700 meters, has limited the wolf’s range to the highest mountain peaks.

The Ethiopian wolf uses all Afroalpine habitats but prefers open areas with short grasses and herbs where rodents live. These rodents are most common in flat or gently sloping areas with poor drainage and deep soil. In the Bale Mountains, the best habitat includes short Alchemilla herbs and grasses with little vegetation. Other good areas are tussock grasslands, high-altitude shrubs with Helichrysum plants, and short grasses in shallow soil. In the northern range, the wolf’s habitat includes a mix of Festuca tussocks, Euryops bushes, and giant lobelias, which are preferred by its rodent prey. In the Simien Mountains, ericaceous moorlands between 3,200 and 3,600 meters may offer a safe place for wolves in disturbed areas.

In the Bale Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf’s main prey are big-headed African mole-rats, but it also eats grass rats, black-clawed brush-furred rats, and highland hares. Other prey include vlei rats, yellow-spotted brush-furred rats, and sometimes goslings or eggs. The wolf has been seen eating rock hyraxes and mountain nyala calves, as well as reedbuck calves. In areas without big-headed African mole-rats, the smaller Northeast African mole-rat is hunted. In the Simien Mountains, the wolf preys on Abyssinian grass rats. Undigested sedge leaves (Carex sp.) have been found in the wolf’s stomach, possibly for fiber or to help control parasites. Researchers have observed the wolf eating nectar from Kniphofia foliosa flowers, suggesting it may be the only known predator that helps pollinate plants. The wolf may eat leftovers from dead animals but is often driven away by free-ranging dogs and African golden wolves. It rarely harms livestock, and farmers often leave their animals unattended in areas where wolves live.

Range and populations

There are six known groups of Ethiopian wolves living today. North of the Rift Valley, the species can be found in the Simien Mountains near Gondar, in the northern and southern parts of the Wollo highlands, and in Guassa Menz in north Shoa. The species has gone extinct in Gosh Meda in north Shoa and on Mount Guna, and it has not been seen in Mount Choqa for many years. Southeast of the Rift Valley, the species lives in the Arsi and Bale Mountains.

Threats

The Ethiopian wolf has been rare since scientists first studied it. This species has always lived in Afroalpine areas, which are highland regions with rich soil and high rainfall. Because of this, the wolf was never found in many places. In the past, all threats to the Ethiopian wolf came from humans, as its habitat is ideal for farming. Immediate dangers include losing or breaking up habitat (from farming, overgrazing, roads, and raising livestock), diseases (like rabies and canine distemper), conflicts with people (poisoning, hunting, and being hit by vehicles), and mixing with dogs.

Rabies from infected dogs killed many Ethiopian wolves during the 1990s and 2000s. In Bale, two outbreaks in 1991 and 2008–2009 caused 75% of known wolves to die or disappear. Vaccinations were given in 2003 and 2008–2009 to help. Canine distemper is not always deadly, but more cases have been found in recent years, including in Bale (2005–2006) and across subpopulations in 2010.

During the 1990s, wolf populations in Gosh Meda and Guguftu disappeared. In both cases, Afroalpine habitat above farming areas was reduced to less than 20 km². Scientists confirmed the extinction of a wolf population in Mt. Guna in 2011, where numbers had been very low for years. Habitat loss is linked to farming in Afroalpine areas. In northern highlands, human populations are very high, with 300 people per square kilometer in some places, and most land below 3,700 meters has been turned into barley fields. Some areas, like Guassa-Menz and Denkoro Reserve, or Arsi and Bale Mountains, have some protection. Wolves in low-lying Afroalpine areas, like Aboi Gara and Delanta, are most at risk from habitat loss.

Some wolf populations, especially in North Wollo, show signs of being split into small groups, which may get worse as humans expand. Fragmentation increases contact with humans, dogs, and livestock, and raises risks of isolation and inbreeding. Though no evidence of inbreeding or weaker health exists, very small wolf numbers, especially north of the Rift Valley, worry scientists. In Bale, wolf populations are more connected, while those in Simien can still mate through habitat corridors.

In Simien Mountains National Park, human and livestock numbers grow by 2% each year. More roads allow people to enter wolf areas. In 2005, 3,171 people in 582 households lived in or near the park, with 1,477 outside. Though the park has expanded and some restrictions are in place, enforcing rules may take time. In 2011, about 30,000 people lived in 30 villages around the park, including farmers, herders, and others. In Bale, over 8,500 households with more than 12,500 dogs live in and around the area. In 2007, 1,756 households were found in wolf habitats. High dog numbers increase disease risks. Brush fires also happen often in the moorlands wolves live in.

Although wolves in Bale use cattle to hide while hunting rodents, heavy grazing can harm the plants that feed their prey. No population declines from overgrazing have been seen, but high grazing can damage soil and plants in areas like Delanta and Simien.

Direct killing of wolves increased during the Ethiopian Civil War when guns were more available. Wolves in Mt. Choqa likely died from being hunted. Though some people now believe wolf numbers are recovering, negative views about wolves remain because they sometimes attack livestock. In Bale, wolves were not seen as threats to sheep and goats, but in other areas like Arsi Mountains, people kill wolves in revenge for livestock losses. Wolves are not hunted for fur, though hides were once used as saddle pads. Hunting for sport was once allowed but is now illegal. Vehicle collisions have killed at least four wolves in Sanetti Plateau since 1988, and others were injured. Similar accidents are a risk in areas with roads through wolf habitats, like Menz and Arsi.

Plans to manage mixing with dogs include sterilizing hybrids. Hybridization has been found in Bale’s Web Valley, with at least four hybrids identified and sterilized. Though no hybrids have been found elsewhere, scientists worry this could harm the wolves’ genetic health. Female wolves avoid inbreeding, so mixing with dogs may happen if no unrelated males are available.

Encounters between Ethiopian wolves and African golden wolves (Canis lupaster) are often aggressive. Ethiopian wolves dominate African wolves in their territory, and vice versa. African golden wolves are not good at hunting rodents, so they do not directly compete with Ethiopian wolves. However, human persecution may prevent African wolves from growing large enough to replace Ethiopian wolves.

Conservation

The Ethiopian wolf is not on the CITES list, but it is protected by Ethiopia's Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing an Ethiopian wolf can result in a two-year jail sentence.

The species lives in several protected areas, including three in South Wollo (Bale Mountains National Park, Simien Mountains National Park, and Borena Sayint Regional Park), one in north Shoa (Guassa Community Conservation Area), and one in Arsi Mountains National Park. Recently, suitable habitat for the wolves has grown to 87% due to expanded boundaries in Simien and the creation of Arsi Mountains National Park.

To help the Ethiopian wolf survive, efforts include vaccinating dogs in Bale, Menz, and Simien, sterilizing wolf-dog hybrids in Bale, vaccinating wolves against rabies in parts of Bale, teaching communities and schools in Bale and Wollo about conservation, supporting national parks, and monitoring wolf populations. A 10-year plan to protect the species was created in February 2011.

The Ethiopian wolf's endangered status was first shared by the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1983, leading to the start of the Bale Mountains Research Project. A detailed four-year study followed, which helped the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group create an action plan in 1997. The plan included teaching people in wolf areas, monitoring wolf populations, and controlling rabies in dogs. The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme was started in 1995 by Oxford University, with support from groups like the Born Free Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society, and the Wildlife Conservation Network.

The main goal of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme is to protect the wolf's Afroalpine habitat in Bale and create new conservation areas in Menz and Wollo. The program teaches people outside the wolf's range how to care for dogs and manage diseases near parks. It also monitors wolves in Bale, south and north Wollo, and aims to vaccinate up to 5,000 dogs each year to reduce rabies and distemper in wolf areas.

In 2016, the Korean company Sooam Biotech was reported to be trying to clone the Ethiopian wolf using dogs as surrogate mothers to help save the species.

Cited works

• IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group (2011). Strategic Planning for Ethiopian Wolf Conservation (PDF). Published by IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group, Oxford, United Kingdom. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 8, 2014. Retrieved December 15, 2012.
• Lydekker, Richard (1908). The Game Animals of Africa. Published by R. Ward Limited, London.
• Powell-Cotton, P. H. G. (1902). A sporting trip through Abyssinia: a narrative of a nine months' journey from the plains of the Hawash to the snows of Simien, with a description of the game, from elephant to ibex, and notes on the manners and customs of the natives. Published by Rowland Ward, London.
• Rüppell, Eduard (1835). Neue Wirbelthiere zu der Fauna von Abyssinien gehörig, entdeckt und beschrieben (in German). Published by S. Schmerber, Frankfurt am Main.
• Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio; MacDonald, David W. (1997). The Ethiopian Wolf: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (PDF). Published by IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group, ISBN 978-2-8317-0407-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2011. Retrieved December 15, 2012.