Endocrine disruptors, also called hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds, are chemicals that can interfere with the body's hormone systems. These chemicals may lead to many health problems, such as changes in sperm quality and fertility, issues with reproductive organs, endometriosis, early puberty, changes in the nervous or immune systems, certain cancers, breathing difficulties, problems with metabolism, diabetes, obesity, heart issues, growth delays, learning challenges, and other problems. These chemicals are found in many household and industrial products. They can interfere with how the body makes, releases, carries, uses, or removes natural hormones that control development, behavior, fertility, and normal body functions.

Any system in the body that depends on hormones can be affected by hormone disruptors. These chemicals may be linked to learning disabilities, severe attention deficit disorder, and problems with brain development.

There is disagreement about endocrine disruptors. Some groups want regulators to quickly remove them from the market, while others believe more research is needed. Some endocrine disruptors have already been removed, such as a drug called diethylstilbestrol. However, it is unclear if all endocrine disruptors currently on the market harm humans and wildlife at the levels they are exposed to. A 2012 report by the World Health Organization stated that even small amounts of these chemicals may cause harm in humans.

History

In 1991, the term "endocrine disruptor" was created at the Wingspread Conference Center in Wisconsin. One of the first papers about this topic was written by Theo Colborn and others in 1993. This paper explained that certain chemicals in the environment can harm the development of the endocrine system. It also noted that the effects of exposure during development are often long-lasting. While some people have questioned the idea of endocrine disruption, scientists from 1992 to 1999 reached agreement about the dangers of endocrine disruptors, especially for wildlife and humans.

The Endocrine Society published a scientific report that described how endocrine disruptors affect male and female reproduction, breast development, cancer, prostate cancer, brain function, thyroid health, metabolism, obesity, and heart health. The report showed that studies on animals and humans support the idea that endocrine disruptors are a serious public health issue. It also mentioned that proving endocrine disruptors cause human diseases is difficult, so it suggested using the precautionary principle. Another report discussed policy concerns related to these chemicals.

Endocrine disrupting compounds include many types of chemicals, such as medicines, pesticides, materials used in plastics and consumer products, industrial waste, pollutants, heavy metals, and some naturally occurring plant chemicals. Industrial chemicals like parabens, phenols, and phthalates are also strong endocrine disruptors. Some of these chemicals are widespread in the environment and can build up in the bodies of living things over time. Others are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which can travel long distances across borders and have been found in nearly every part of the world. Some POPs collect near the North Pole due to weather patterns and cold temperatures. Other chemicals break down quickly in the environment or in the human body and remain only briefly. Health effects linked to endocrine disruptors include reproductive problems (such as lower fertility, reproductive tract issues, imbalanced sex ratios, miscarriage, and menstrual problems), changes in hormone levels, early puberty, brain and behavior issues, weakened immune systems, and various cancers.

An example of the effects of endocrine disruptors is the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES), a type of estrogen that is not an environmental pollutant. Before it was banned in the early 1970s, doctors gave DES to about five million pregnant women to prevent miscarriage, a use not approved by the medicine’s makers before 1947. After these children reached puberty, it was found that DES affected their reproductive systems and caused vaginal cancer. However, the high doses of DES used in this case are much greater than the lower levels people might be exposed to through environmental sources.

Aquatic life exposed to endocrine disruptors in urban wastewater has shown lower levels of serotonin and more female characteristics in male fish.

In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Environment Programme published a study, the most detailed report on endocrine disruptors to date. The report called for more research to better understand the links between endocrine disruptors and risks to human and animal health. The team highlighted major gaps in knowledge and recommended the following steps to improve understanding globally:

• Testing: Currently known endocrine disruptors are only a small part of the problem. Better testing methods are needed to find other possible endocrine disruptors, their sources, and how people are exposed to them.
• Research: More scientific studies are needed to understand how mixtures of endocrine disruptors affect humans and wildlife, especially from industrial waste, which people and animals are increasingly exposed to.
• Reporting: Many sources of endocrine disruptors are unknown because there is not enough information about chemicals in products, materials, and goods.
• Collaboration: Sharing data between scientists and countries can help fill gaps in knowledge, especially in developing countries and emerging economies.

Endocrine system

The endocrine system is present in most types of animals. This system includes glands that release hormones and receptors that detect and respond to these hormones. Hormones move through the body in the bloodstream and act as chemical messengers. They interact with cells that have matching receptors on or inside their surfaces. When a hormone binds to a receptor, it is similar to how a key fits into a lock. The endocrine system controls changes in the body through slower processes, using hormones as messengers. It releases hormones in response to environmental changes and to manage growth, development, and reproduction. The changes caused by the endocrine system are biochemical, altering the chemistry inside and outside cells to create long-term effects in the body. These systems work together to keep the body functioning properly throughout its life. Hormones such as estrogens, androgens, and thyroid hormones are regulated by feedback control, which helps limit how sensitive these glands become.

Hormones work in very small amounts, even as low as parts per billion. Exposure to low levels of foreign hormones or chemicals that act like hormones, such as bisphenol A, can disrupt the endocrine system. These chemicals may bind to receptors involved in other hormone-related processes. Since the body already contains natural hormones in active amounts, even small amounts of foreign substances can interfere with the endocrine system's normal function. This means that endocrine disruptors can cause harm at much lower doses than substances that cause direct toxicity, using a different method.

The timing of exposure is also important. Many critical stages of development happen in the womb, where the fertilized egg divides and forms all the structures of a baby, including parts of the brain. Disrupting hormone communication in the womb can cause major changes in the body’s structure and brain development. Depending on the stage of reproductive development, interference with hormone signaling can lead to effects that cannot be reversed, even if adults are exposed to the same dose for the same time. Studies on animals have shown specific times during pregnancy and after birth when exposure to chemicals that mimic or block hormones can cause lasting harm that continues into adulthood. Disrupted thyroid function early in development may lead to abnormal sexual development in both boys and girls, delays in motor skills, and learning difficulties.

Research on cell cultures, lab animals, wildlife, and people accidentally exposed to chemicals shows that environmental substances can cause a variety of effects on reproduction, development, growth, and behavior. While evidence of endocrine disruption in humans from pollutants is still limited, the science behind these findings is strong, and the possibility of such effects is real. Studies have focused on chemicals that mimic estrogen, testosterone, or block these hormones, but less is known about how other hormones might be affected.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals has also been linked to changes in immune function. Since many immune system activities are controlled by hormones, disrupting hormone signaling can affect the production of immune-related proteins and the responses of immune cells. These changes may lead to weaker immune responses and increased inflammation, including a higher risk of autoimmune diseases. Early-life exposure is especially concerning, as interference during key developmental stages can cause long-term changes in immune function.

The relationship between chemical exposure and health effects is complex. It is difficult to clearly connect a specific chemical to a particular health issue, and adults exposed to these chemicals may not show symptoms. However, fetuses and embryos, whose growth and development are highly controlled by the endocrine system, are more vulnerable to exposure and may experience long-term health or reproductive problems. Exposure before birth can sometimes lead to permanent changes and adult diseases.

Some scientists are concerned that exposure to endocrine disruptors during pregnancy or early life may be linked to neurodevelopmental issues, such as lower intelligence, ADHD, and autism. Certain cancers and reproductive abnormalities in women have been associated with exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb, as DES was once used as a medical treatment.

In a 2005 study, higher levels of phthalates in the urine of pregnant women were linked to small but specific changes in the genitalia of their male infants, including a shorter anogenital distance (AGD), incomplete descent of the testes, and smaller scrotum and penis. This finding was questioned by industry experts, and in 2008, only five human studies on AGD had been conducted. One researcher noted that it was unclear whether AGD measurements in humans relate to serious health outcomes or if they are useful for studying hormone activity. Today, it is widely accepted that AGD reflects fetal exposure to male hormones, and several studies have found a connection between AGD and the risk of prostate cancer.

Effects on intrinsic hormones

Toxicology research shows that some endocrine disruptors target specific hormone functions that allow one hormone to control the production or breakdown of other hormones in the body. Because endocrine disruptors can mimic or block natural hormones, these chemicals can cause effects by interacting with certain receptors in the body, such as nuclear receptors, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, or membrane-bound receptors.

U-shaped dose-response curve

Most toxicants, including endocrine disruptors, are said to follow a U-shaped dose-response curve. This means that very low and very high levels of exposure can cause more effects than mid-level exposure.

Endocrine-disrupting effects have been observed in animals exposed to chemical levels similar to those found in the environment. For example, a common flame retardant called BDE-47 affects the reproductive system and thyroid gland of female rats at doses similar to those humans are exposed to.

Low concentrations of endocrine disruptors can also have synergistic effects in amphibians, but it is unclear if this occurs through the endocrine system.

A consensus statement from the Learning and Developmental Disabilities Initiative stated that "low-dose effects of endocrine disruptors cannot be predicted from high-dose studies, which contradicts the standard rule in toxicology that 'dose makes the poison.' Nontraditional dose-response curves are called non-monotonic dose response curves."

It has been claimed that tamoxifen and some phthalates have very different and harmful effects on the body at low doses compared to high doses.

Routes of exposure

Food is a major way that people come into contact with pollutants. Diet is thought to be responsible for up to 90% of the amount of PCB and DDT in a person’s body. A study of 32 common food items from three stores in Dallas, Texas, found that fish and other animal products were contaminated with PBDE. These chemicals dissolve in fat, so they likely build up in the fatty parts of animals that humans eat. Some believe eating fish is a major source of environmental pollutants. Studies show that both wild and farmed salmon from around the world contain many man-made chemicals. While pesticides are found in many foods, phthalates can also enter crops, vegetables, and fruits through polluted soil and plastic covers used in greenhouses.

Endocrine disruptors can change hormone levels in the body. Children and infants are more likely to be affected by these chemicals. Phthalates (PAE) are used to make plastics last longer and can be found in water bottles and during dairy production. Drinking water from plastic bottles is a way people are exposed to endocrine disruptors. However, there is not a large risk for humans. Phytoestrogens are natural endocrine disruptors found in food. Soybeans contain a type of phytoestrogen called Geinstein. Studies in Turkey found that battery eggs contained PAEs, while free-range eggs had DDT, a banned pesticide.

Indoor air has become a major source of pollution exposure because of more household products with pollutants and less ventilation in buildings. People living in homes with wood floors treated in the 1960s with PCB-based finishes have higher levels of these chemicals in their bodies than the general population. A study of house dust and dryer lint from 16 homes found high levels of all 22 PBDE types tested. Recent research suggests that house dust, not food, may be the main source of PBDE in the body. One study estimated that eating house dust accounts for up to 82% of the PBDE in people’s bodies.

Contaminated house dust is a primary source of lead in young children’s bodies. Babies and toddlers may eat more house dust than adults, leading to higher levels of pollutants in their systems.

Consumer products are another way people are exposed to endocrine disruptors. An analysis compared 42 household cleaning and personal care products with 43 "chemical-free" products. The products contained 55 different chemicals: 50 were found in the 42 conventional products, and 41 were found in the 43 "chemical-free" products. Parabens, chemicals linked to reproductive issues, were found in seven "chemical-free" products, including three sunscreens that did not list parabens on their labels. Vinyl products like shower curtains contained more than 10% DEHP, a chemical linked to asthma and wheezing in children. Using multiple products increases the risk of exposure to these chemicals.

A study of Old Order Mennonite women during pregnancy found they had much lower levels of endocrine-disrupting chemicals than the general population. Mennonites eat mostly fresh, unprocessed food, avoid pesticides, and use few cosmetics. One woman who used hairspray and perfume had high levels of a phthalate chemical, while others had levels too low to detect. Three women who were in cars or trucks within 48 hours of giving a urine sample had higher levels of a phthalate chemical used in car interiors.

Recent research has focused on clothing as a source of endocrine disruptors. Greenpeace reported finding phthalates in 33 out of 35 printed clothing items in 2013. A t-shirt from Primark Germany had high levels of DEHP, and a baby one-piece from American Apparel had high levels of DINP. PFCs were found in swimwear and waterproof clothing, and NPEs were common in many items. A 2014 study found high levels of phthalates in athletic gear, including up to 15% in a t-shirt from Argentina. Another 2019 study found all 15 types of phthalates tested in preschoolers’ clothing, with risks increasing when certain clothing items were worn together.

A review of 120 studies from 2014 to 2023 found that screen printing ink, vinyl patches, and synthetic leather may contain 30–60% phthalates. Waterproof items like infant mattress covers also had high levels of these chemicals. Manufacturers often replace banned substances like DEHP with newer chemicals that may not be as strictly regulated.

Additives in plastics can escape into the environment after the plastic is thrown away. These additives in ocean microplastics can leach into water, while plastics in landfills can release chemicals into soil and groundwater. These chemicals are found in plastics, pesticides, food containers, children’s toys, industrial waste, and some personal care products. They can pollute the environment by entering soil, air, and water.

Types

All people come into contact with chemicals that act like estrogen in their daily lives. These chemicals, called endocrine disruptors, are found in small amounts in thousands of products. Common chemicals found in people include DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and many types of phthalates. Almost all plastic products, even those labeled as BPA-free, have been found to release endocrine-disrupting chemicals. A 2011 study showed that some BPA-free products released more endocrine-active chemicals than products containing BPA. Other endocrine disruptors include phytoestrogens, which are plant-based compounds that mimic estrogen.

Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. Synthetic xenoestrogens include industrial chemicals like PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which can affect living organisms by acting like estrogen.

Alkylphenols are a type of xenoestrogen. The European Union has rules that limit the use of certain alkylphenols, such as nonylphenol, because they are believed to be toxic, last a long time in the environment, and can build up in the bodies of animals. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has taken a slower approach to ensure actions are based on scientific evidence.

Long-chain alkylphenols are used in many products, including detergents, fuels, polymers, and phenolic resins. They are also used to make fragrances, thermoplastic elastomers, antioxidants, oil field chemicals, and fire retardant materials. Through their use in making alkylphenolic resins, alkylphenols are found in tires, adhesives, coatings, carbonless copy paper, and high-performance rubber products. These chemicals have been used in industry for over 40 years.

Some alkylphenols are breakdown products of nonionic detergents. Nonylphenol is considered a low-level endocrine disruptor because it can mimic estrogen.

Bisphenol A is found in plastic bottles, food containers, dental materials, and the linings of metal cans used for food and infant formula. People are also exposed to BPA through receipt paper used in stores and restaurants, as this paper is often coated with BPA-containing clay for printing.

BPA is known to disrupt the endocrine system. Studies on laboratory animals have found that exposure to low levels of BPA can increase the risk of diabetes, breast and prostate cancers, lower sperm counts, reproductive problems, early puberty, obesity, and neurological issues. In the United States, studies have found that BPA levels in the urine of healthy women with no fertility problems were not linked to pregnancy timing, even though some had shorter menstrual cycles. Other studies at fertility centers found that BPA exposure is linked to lower ovarian reserves. To address this, many women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) have higher BPA levels in their urine. Studies also found that women who had miscarriages had higher BPA levels than those who had successful pregnancies. These findings suggest that BPA may affect ovarian function and early stages of conception. Some studies found that Asian women had higher rates of mature egg cells but lower BPA levels compared to other groups. Early life stages appear most sensitive to BPA’s effects, and prenatal exposure has been linked to later physical and neurological challenges. Regulatory agencies have set safety limits for BPA, but these limits are being reviewed due to new research. A 2011 study found BPA in 96% of pregnant women in the U.S. In 2010, the World Health Organization said no new regulations limiting BPA use were needed, as evidence was not strong enough to support public health actions.

In August 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a draft report confirming that BPA is safe based on scientific evidence. However, in October 2008, the FDA’s advisory Science Board said the assessment was flawed and did not prove BPA safe for infants. In January 2010, the FDA reported that recent studies raised concerns about BPA’s effects on the brains and behavior of fetuses, infants, and young children. In 2012, the FDA banned BPA in baby bottles, but the Environmental Working Group called the ban "purely cosmetic," saying the agency should ban BPA in infant formula and food packaging instead. The Natural Resources Defense Council said the ban was not enough and called for a complete ban on BPA in all food packaging. A FDA spokesperson said the ban was not based on safety concerns and that BPA is safe for food-contact products.

A program led by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the National Toxicology Program (NTP), and the FDA (called CLARITY-BPA) found no effects of long-term BPA exposure in rats. The FDA still considers current uses of BPA safe for consumers.

The Environmental Protection Agency set a reference dose for BPA at 50 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day for mammals. However, exposure to lower doses has been shown to affect both male and female reproductive systems.

Bisphenol S and Bisphenol F are similar to BPA. They are found in thermal receipts, plastics, and household dust. Traces of Bisphenol S have also been found in personal care products. It is used more often now because of the ban on BPA. However, Bisphenol S and Bisphenol F have

Temporal trends of body burden

Since DDT and PCB were banned, the average amounts of these chemicals in human bodies have decreased. After they were banned in 1972, the amount of PCB in people’s bodies in 2009 was 1/100th of the levels found in the early 1980s. However, studies of breast milk samples from Europe show that PBDE levels are rising. An analysis of PBDE in breast milk from Europe, Canada, and the US found that North American women have 40 times more PBDE than Swedish women. In North America, PBDE levels are increasing by about twice every 2 to 6 years.

Scientists have suggested that the slow, long-term decrease in average body temperature since the start of the industrial revolution might be linked to problems with thyroid hormone signals.

Animal models

Endocrine disruptors can affect important systems in the body, such as metabolism, reproduction, and brain function. Scientists use animal models to study the risks of these chemicals. Common animals used for this research include mice, fish eggs, and frogs.

Genetically modified mice are often used to study how genes influence health. One type of mouse population is called "multi-parent," which includes two groups: the collaborative cross (CC) and the diversity outbred (DO) strains. These groups are created by combining genes from eight different mouse strains. Some of these strains come from wild mice, which have a wide variety of genes, while others are developed in labs.

The CC population includes 83 types of mice that were created over many generations from the eight original strains. DO mice share the same genetic material as CC mice but have two key differences: each DO mouse is unique, which allows scientists to study many individuals at once, and DO mice cannot be bred to create identical copies.

Scientists use mice with special genetic changes, called transgenic lines, to study how chemicals affect the body. These changes are made using techniques like CRISPR. For example, scientists can insert genes from other organisms into mice to create models that mimic human biology. They also use mice with specific genes removed, called gene knockout lines, to understand how chemicals impact body functions. However, creating transgenic mice is time-consuming and costly.

Rodent models, such as mice, can help scientists study how chemicals might affect behaviors. Prairie and pine voles are used because they form long-term social bonds, similar to humans, which helps researchers study how chemicals might influence human social behaviors.

The endocrine systems of mammals and fish are similar, so scientists use zebrafish (Danio rerio) as models. Zebrafish embryos are clear, small (larvae are less than a few millimeters long), and have simple ways of being affected by chemicals. Their body systems, including those that sense and send signals, are similar to those in mammals. Scientists also use zebrafish because their complete genetic code is known, and many transgenic lines are available for breeding. About 80% of human genes are also found in zebrafish, making them a useful tool for research.

Directions of research

Research on endocrine disruptors faces five challenges that require special study designs and careful scientific methods:

• The separation of space means that, even though disruptors may act through a shared pathway involving hormone receptors, their effects can also occur through other processes, such as interactions with proteins that carry hormones, enzymes that process hormones, hormone breakdown, or changes in how the body regulates hormone levels (known as allostatic load).
• The separation of time can occur because harmful effects might appear during early development (in an embryo or fetus), but the results of these effects may not be seen until many years later or even in future generations.
• The separation of substance happens because disruptors can interact with each other in ways that create effects different from what each substance would cause alone, such as adding, multiplying, or combining in complex ways.
• The separation of dose means that the relationship between the amount of a disruptor and its effects is not always straightforward. Sometimes, low or medium amounts may cause stronger effects than high amounts.
• The separation of sex shows that the effects of disruptors can vary depending on whether the embryo or fetus is male or female.

Legal approach

The United States regulates many types of endocrine disruptors through several laws, including the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Food Quality Protection Act, the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Clean Air Act.

Congress has improved how the United States evaluates and regulates drugs and chemicals. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996 required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to begin addressing endocrine disruption by creating a program to test chemical substances.

In 1998, the EPA started the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. This program aimed to test more than 85,000 chemicals used in the United States. At first, the Food Quality Protection Act required the EPA to test pesticides for effects similar to estrogen in humans. However, the EPA was also allowed to test other chemicals and effects. Based on advice from a group of experts, the program was expanded to include testing for male hormones, thyroid function, and effects on fish and wildlife. The program prioritizes chemicals based on information about their uses, how much is produced, their structure, and their harmful effects. Testing uses lab experiments (such as checking if a chemical interacts with hormone receptors) and studies on animals, like observing frog development or rodent growth. Full testing includes examining effects in mammals (like rats) and other species (such as frogs, fish, birds, and invertebrates). Animal testing is needed to confirm effects on systems, but some groups oppose it. Testing on humans would also be needed to confirm effects, though this is also opposed by some.

The EPA faced delays in starting the program and finally began testing suspected endocrine disruptors in 2007, 11 years after the program was announced. When the final testing plan was shared, some people criticized its design. Critics said the process was influenced by chemical companies. In 2005, the EPA asked experts to review the program, and they found the program’s goals and scientific questions were appropriate. However, this review happened before the final testing plan was announced. The EPA still struggles to create a reliable and efficient testing program.

By 2016, the EPA had tested 1,800 chemicals for estrogen-related effects.

In 2013, the European Union proposed banning certain pesticides containing endocrine disruptors. However, U.S. trade negotiators asked the EU to remove these rules, arguing for a risk-based approach to regulation. The same day, a European official requested the EU to remove the criteria.

The European Commission planned to set rules by December 2013 to identify endocrine disruptors in thousands of products, including disinfectants, pesticides, and personal care items, which are linked to health issues like cancer and birth defects. However, the process was delayed, leading Sweden to threaten legal action in 2014, blaming chemical industry influence. Sweden’s environment minister stated that hormone disruptors are causing problems, such as fish with both male and female traits and health issues in children.

In 2014, the Nordic Council of Ministers released a report estimating that endocrine disruptors may cost European health systems between 59 million and 1.18 billion euros annually, though this is only a small part of the total health costs linked to endocrine-related diseases.

In 2020, the European Union released a plan to move the chemical industry toward safer practices, reducing the use of harmful chemicals like xenohormones.

Environmental and human body cleanup

There is evidence that when a pollutant is no longer used or heavily restricted, the amount of that pollutant in the human body decreases. Large-scale monitoring programs have helped identify the most common pollutants found in people. The first step to reducing the amount of these pollutants in the body is to stop or reduce their production.

The second step is to raise awareness and label foods that may contain high levels of pollutants. This method has been effective in the past, such as when pregnant and nursing women are advised to avoid eating seafood that contains high levels of mercury.

A major challenge is learning how to remove these chemicals from the environment and where to focus cleanup efforts. Even after pollutants are no longer produced, they can remain in the environment and build up in the food chain. Understanding how these chemicals move through ecosystems is important for finding ways to remove them. Global efforts have been made to label the most common persistent organic pollutants (POPs) found in the environment, using chemicals like insecticides. The twelve main POPs have been studied and grouped to make information easier for the public. This has helped countries work together to test and reduce the use of these chemicals. By reducing these chemicals in the environment, their spread into food sources that supply the U.S. population can be limited.

Many long-lasting organic compounds, such as PCBs, DDT, and PBDEs, build up in river and ocean sediments. The EPA uses several methods, as described in their Green Remediation program, to clean up heavily polluted areas. Naturally occurring microbes that break down PCBs are used to clean contaminated areas.

There are many examples of successful cleanup efforts at large polluted sites. A 10-acre landfill in Austin, Texas, contaminated with illegally dumped chemicals, was restored to a wetland and educational park within one year. A U.S. uranium enrichment site contaminated with uranium and PCBs was cleaned using advanced equipment to locate pollutants in the soil. At a polluted wetlands site, the soil and water were cleaned of VOCs, PCBs, and lead. Native plants were added to filter water, and a community program was created to monitor pollutant levels. These projects show that cleanup can be done quickly and effectively.

Studies suggest that certain pollutants, such as bisphenol A (BPA), some PCBs, and phthalates, are removed from the body through sweat. Recent scientific methods have been developed to help the body eliminate pollutants faster. For example, techniques using enzymes like laccase and peroxidase can break down BPA into less harmful substances. Another method uses highly reactive chemicals to break down BPA.

Economic effects

Human exposure can lead to certain health problems, such as lower intelligence, adult obesity, issues with female reproduction, and issues with male reproduction. These problems may result in reduced work ability, long-term health issues, or early death in some individuals. One source estimated that, in the European Union, the economic effects of these health problems might be about twice as large as the effects caused by mercury and lead contamination.

Over the past five years, the cost of health problems linked to EDCs (endocrine-disrupting chemicals) was estimated at about €163 per person annually in the European Union and $340 billion each year in the United States. These numbers may be lower than the true cost because many health effects from EDC exposure are not fully measured.