Endocrine disruptors, also called hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds, are chemicals that can interfere with the body's hormonal systems. These chemicals may lead to many health problems, such as issues with sperm quality and fertility, problems with sexual organs, endometriosis, early puberty, changes in nervous system or immune function, certain cancers, breathing difficulties, metabolic issues, diabetes, obesity, heart problems, growth delays, learning disabilities, and other challenges. These chemicals are found in many household and industrial products and can mess up how hormones are made, released, used, or removed in the body. Hormones are important for development, behavior, fertility, and keeping the body in balance.

Any system in the body that uses hormones can be affected by endocrine disruptors. These chemicals may be linked to learning disabilities, severe attention deficit disorder, and problems with brain development.

There is disagreement about endocrine disruptors. Some groups want regulators to quickly remove them from the market, while others believe more research is needed. Some endocrine disruptors have already been removed, such as a drug called diethylstilbestrol. However, it is unclear whether some chemicals currently on the market harm humans or wildlife at the levels they are exposed to. A 2012 report from the World Health Organization stated that even small amounts of these chemicals might cause health problems in people.

History

The term "endocrine disruptor" was created in 1991 during a meeting at the Wingspread Conference Center in Wisconsin. One of the first papers about this topic was written by Theo Colborn and others in 1993. This paper explained that chemicals in the environment can harm the development of the endocrine system, and that these effects are often long-lasting. While some people disagree about the impact of endocrine disruption, meetings from 1992 to 1999 led scientists to agree that endocrine disruptors pose a risk, especially to wildlife and humans.

The Endocrine Society published a scientific report that described how endocrine disruptors affect "male and female reproduction, breast development and cancer, prostate cancer, brain and hormone function, thyroid, metabolism and obesity, and heart health." The report showed that studies on animals and humans support the idea that endocrine disruptors are a major public health concern. It also noted that proving endocrine disruptors cause human diseases is difficult and suggested using the precautionary principle. Another report discussed policy concerns related to these chemicals.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds include many types of chemicals, such as medicines, pesticides, chemicals used in plastics and consumer products, industrial waste, pollutants, heavy metals, and some naturally occurring plant chemicals. Industrial chemicals like parabens, phenols, and phthalates are also strong endocrine disruptors. Some of these chemicals are found everywhere and can build up in the body. Others are long-lasting and can travel far across borders, being found in nearly all parts of the world, even near the North Pole. Some chemicals break down quickly in the environment or in the human body and may only stay for a short time. Health effects linked to endocrine disruptors include reproductive problems (such as lower fertility, birth defects in the reproductive system, unusual male-to-female ratios, miscarriages, and menstrual issues), changes in hormone levels, early puberty, brain and behavior issues, weakened immune systems, and various cancers.

An example of the effects of exposure to hormonally active agents is the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES), a type of estrogen that is not an environmental pollutant. Before it was banned in the early 1970s, doctors gave DES to about five million pregnant women to prevent miscarriages, a use not approved by medical guidelines before 1947. Later, it was found that DES caused reproductive system problems and vaginal cancer in children. However, the amounts of DES used were much higher than those from environmental exposures, so its connection to endocrine disruptors is unclear.

Aquatic life exposed to endocrine disruptors in urban wastewater has shown lower serotonin levels and more female characteristics in fish.

In 2013, the WHO and the United Nations Environment Programme released a detailed report on endocrine disruptors, calling for more research to better understand their effects on human and animal health. The report highlighted gaps in knowledge and recommended:

• Testing: Known endocrine disruptors are only a small part of the problem. More tests are needed to find other EDCs, their sources, and how people are exposed.
• Research: More studies are needed to understand how mixtures of EDCs affect humans and wildlife, especially from industrial waste.
• Reporting: Many EDCs are unknown because there is not enough information about chemicals in products, materials, and goods.
• Collaboration: Sharing information between scientists and countries can help fill knowledge gaps, especially in developing countries and emerging economies.

Endocrine system

The endocrine system is found in most types of animals. This system includes glands that release hormones and receptors that detect and respond to these hormones. Hormones move through the body in the bloodstream and act as chemical messengers. They attach to cells that have matching receptors on or inside their surfaces. This process is similar to how a key fits into a lock. The endocrine system controls changes in the body through slow, internal processes using hormones as messengers. It releases hormones in response to environmental changes and to guide growth, development, and reproduction. The changes caused by the endocrine system are chemical, altering the inside and outside of cells to create long-term effects in the body. These systems work together to keep the body functioning properly throughout its life. Hormones like estrogens, androgens, and thyroid hormones are controlled by feedback systems that help limit how sensitive these glands are.

Hormones work in very small amounts (measured in parts per billion). Endocrine disruption can occur from exposure to low levels of foreign hormones or chemicals, such as bisphenol A. These chemicals can attach to receptors involved in other hormone-related processes. Since the body already has active levels of its own hormones, even small amounts of outside chemicals can interfere with the endocrine system's proper function. This means that endocrine disruptors can cause harm at much lower doses than chemicals that cause direct toxicity, using a different method.

The timing of exposure is important. Many key stages of development happen in the womb, where the fertilized egg divides and forms all parts of a baby, including the brain. Disrupting hormone communication in the womb can lead to serious effects on both the body's structure and brain development. Depending on the stage of development, hormone interference can cause changes that cannot be reversed, even if adults are exposed to the same dose for the same time. Studies in animals have shown specific times during pregnancy and after birth when exposure to hormone-disrupting chemicals can cause lasting harm into adulthood. Early disruption of thyroid function may lead to problems with sexual development, motor skills, and learning in both boys and girls.

Research on cells, lab animals, wildlife, and humans accidentally exposed to chemicals shows that environmental chemicals can cause many health issues, including problems with reproduction, growth, and behavior. While it is still unclear if these effects happen in humans, the science behind these findings is strong, and the risk is real. Scientists have studied chemicals that mimic estrogen, testosterone, or thyroid hormones, but less is known about how other hormones are affected.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals has also been linked to changes in the immune system. Since the immune system is controlled by hormones, disrupting hormone signals can affect the production of immune cells and proteins, leading to weaker immune responses and more inflammation, including a higher risk of autoimmune diseases. Exposure during early life is especially concerning because it can cause long-term changes in immune function.

The connection between chemical exposure and health problems is complex. It is hard to prove that a specific chemical causes a particular health issue, and some adults exposed to these chemicals may not show any harm. However, fetuses and embryos, whose growth is strongly controlled by the endocrine system, are more likely to be harmed by exposure and may develop long-term health or reproductive problems. In some cases, exposure before birth can lead to permanent changes and health issues later in life.

Some scientists are worried that exposure to endocrine disruptors during pregnancy or early life may be linked to problems like lower intelligence, ADHD, and autism. Certain cancers and reproductive issues in women have been connected to exposure to a chemical called diethylstilbestrol (DES) during pregnancy.

In a 2005 study, higher levels of phthalates in the urine of pregnant women were linked to small, but specific, changes in the genitalia of their male babies, such as a shorter distance between the anus and genitals and smaller testes and penis. Experts from the phthalate industry questioned the study, and in 2008, only five human studies had looked at this measurement. One researcher said it was unclear if these measurements were meaningful for health. Today, it is known that this measurement, called anogenital distance (AGD), shows how much androgen (a hormone) a fetus was exposed to. Studies have found that AGD is linked to the risk of prostate cancer later in life.

Effects on intrinsic hormones

Toxicology studies show that some endocrine disruptors focus on the specific hormone characteristic that helps one hormone manage the body's own hormones. Since these disruptors can act like or block natural hormones, they can cause effects by interacting with nuclear receptors, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, or membrane-bound receptors.

U-shaped dose-response curve

Many harmful substances, such as endocrine disruptors, are said to have a U-shaped dose-response curve. This means that very small amounts and very large amounts of a substance can cause more effects than moderate amounts.

Studies have shown that some chemicals, even at levels found in the environment, can harm animals. For example, a common flame retardant called BDE-47 can affect the reproductive system and thyroid gland of female rats at levels similar to those humans are exposed to.

Low amounts of endocrine disruptors may also cause combined effects in amphibians, but it is unclear if these effects happen through the endocrine system.

A group called the Learning and Developmental Disabilities Initiative stated that low-dose effects of endocrine disruptors cannot be predicted from studies on high doses. This idea goes against the traditional rule in toxicology that "dose makes the poison." These unusual dose-response patterns are called non-monotonic dose response curves.

It has been reported that tamoxifen and some phthalates can harm the body in different ways at low doses compared to high doses.

Routes of exposure

Food is a major way people are exposed to pollutants. Diet is believed to be responsible for up to 90% of the amount of PCBs and DDT in a person's body. A study in Dallas, Texas, examined 32 common food items from three stores. Fish and other animal products were found to contain PBDE. These chemicals are fat-soluble, so they may build up in the fatty parts of animals that humans eat. Some people believe eating fish is a major source of environmental contaminants. Wild and farmed salmon from around the world have been found to contain many man-made organic compounds. While pesticides are found in many foods, phthalates can also move into crops, vegetables, and fruits from polluted soil and greenhouse plastic covers.

Endocrine disruptors can change hormone levels in the body. Children and infants are more likely to be affected by these chemicals. Phthalates (PAE) are used to make plastics last longer and can be found in water bottles or during dairy production. Drinking water from plastic bottles is a way people are exposed to endocrine disruptors. However, the risk to humans is not considered very high. Phytoestrogens are natural endocrine disruptors found in food. Soybeans contain a type of phytoestrogen called Geinstein. Studies have shown that eggs also contain PAEs. In a study in Turkey, researchers tested three types of eggs: battery, free-range, and organic. Battery eggs had PAEs, and free-range eggs had DDT, a banned pesticide.

Indoor air has become a major source of pollutant exposure because of more household products with pollutants and less ventilation in homes. People living in houses with wood floors treated in the 1960s with PCB-based finishes have higher levels of these chemicals in their bodies than the general population. A study of indoor dust and dryer lint from 16 homes found high levels of all 22 PBDE types tested in every sample. Recent studies suggest that contaminated house dust, not food, may be the main source of PBDE in the body. One study estimated that eating house dust accounts for up to 82% of the PBDE in a person's body.

Contaminated house dust is a major source of lead in young children’s bodies. Babies and toddlers may eat more dust than adults, leading to higher levels of pollutants in their systems.

Consumer goods are another way people are exposed to endocrine disruptors. A study compared 42 household cleaning and personal care products with 43 "chemical-free" products. The products contained 55 different chemicals: 50 were found in the 42 regular products, and 41 were found in the 43 "chemical-free" products. Parabens, chemicals linked to reproductive issues, were found in seven "chemical-free" products, including three sunscreens that did not list parabens on their labels. Vinyl products like shower curtains were found to contain more than 10% DEHP, a chemical linked to asthma and wheezing in children. Using multiple products, both regular and "chemical-free," increases the risk of exposure to endocrine disruptors. For example, using certain cleaners, laundry detergent, and personal care products could expose someone to at least 19 different chemicals.

A study of Old Order Mennonite women in mid-pregnancy found they had much lower levels of endocrine disruptors than the general population. Mennonites eat mostly fresh, unprocessed food, avoid pesticides, and use few cosmetics or personal care products. One woman who used hairspray and perfume had high levels of a phthalate chemical, while others had levels too low to detect. Three women who had been in a car or truck within 48 hours of giving a urine sample had higher levels of another phthalate chemical, which is used in car interiors.

Recent research has focused on exposure to endocrine disruptors through clothing. Greenpeace reported on phthalates in clothing since 2011. In 2013, Greenpeace found phthalates in 33 of 35 printed clothing items from around the world. A t-shirt from Primark Germany had high levels of DEHP, and a baby one-piece from American Apparel had high levels of DINP. PFCs were found in swimwear and waterproof clothing, and NPEs were found in most clothing items.

A 2014 study by Greenpeace Germany found high levels of phthalates in athletic gear. A t-shirt printed in Argentina had up to 15% phthalates, and gloves had 6% phthalates. The study also found high levels of PFAS, nonoxynols, and dimethylformamide in shoes and boots.

In 2019, Li et al. found that skin contact was the main way infants are exposed to phthalates, including through clothing. Washing clothes did not remove all phthalates. Of six phthalates tested, DEHP and DBP were found in infant clothing.

Tang et al. found all 15 phthalates tested in preschoolers’ clothing. Levels varied by garment type, fabric, and color, but not by where the clothing was made. Researchers found that wearing trousers, long-sleeved shirts, briefs, and socks together increased reproductive risks for children.

A review of 120 studies from 2014 to 2023 found that screen printing ink, vinyl patches, and synthetic leather may contain 30–60% phthalates. Waterproof items like infant mattress covers also had high levels of these chemicals. Manufacturers often replace more regulated chemicals like DEHP with newer ones that may not be as strictly controlled.

Additives in plastics can leak into the environment after plastic items are thrown away. These additives in microplastics in the ocean can enter water, and plastics in landfills can leak into soil and then into groundwater. These chemicals are found in plastics, pesticides, food containers, children’s toys, industrial waste, and some personal care products. They can pollute the soil, air, and water.

Types

People are exposed to chemicals that mimic estrogen in their daily lives because hormone-disrupting chemicals are present in small amounts in thousands of products. Common chemicals found in people include DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and many types of phthalates. Most plastic products, even those labeled as BPA-free, have been found to release hormone-disrupting chemicals. A 2011 study showed that some BPA-free products released more hormone-active chemicals than products containing BPA. Other hormone-disrupting chemicals include phytoestrogens, which are plant-based compounds that act like estrogen.

Xenoestrogens are a type of man-made chemical that imitates estrogen. Synthetic xenoestrogens include widely used industrial chemicals such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which can affect living organisms.

Alkylphenols are xenoestrogens. The European Union has limited the use of certain alkylphenols, such as nonylphenol, because of concerns about their toxicity, ability to remain in the environment, and tendency to build up in living organisms. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has taken a slower approach to ensure actions are based on scientific evidence.

Long-chain alkylphenols are used in detergents, fuels, lubricants, polymers, and phenolic resins. These chemicals are also used to make fragrances, thermoplastic elastomers, antioxidants, oil field chemicals, and fire retardants. Through their use in resins, alkylphenols are found in tires, adhesives, coatings, carbonless copy paper, and high-performance rubber products. These chemicals have been used in industry for over 40 years.

Some alkylphenols are byproducts of nonionic detergents. Nonylphenol is considered a weak hormone-disruptor because it can mimic estrogen.

Bisphenol A is found in plastic bottles, food containers, dental materials, and the linings of metal food and infant formula cans. People are also exposed to BPA through receipt paper used in grocery stores and restaurants, as the paper is often coated with BPA-containing clay for printing.

BPA is a known hormone-disruptor. Studies on laboratory animals exposed to low levels of BPA have found increased risks of diabetes, breast and prostate cancers, lower sperm counts, reproductive issues, early puberty, obesity, and neurological problems. In the United States, studies on healthy women without fertility issues found no direct link between BPA levels in urine and pregnancy timing, though some women with lower ovarian function had higher BPA levels. Women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) often have high BPA levels in their urine. Women who experienced miscarriages had higher average BPA levels than those who had successful pregnancies. These findings suggest BPA may affect ovarian function and early stages of conception. Some studies found Asian women had higher rates of mature eggs but lower BPA levels. Early life stages appear most sensitive to BPA’s effects, and some research links prenatal exposure to later health and developmental issues. Regulatory agencies have set safety limits for BPA, but these limits are being reviewed due to new scientific findings. A 2011 study found BPA in 96% of pregnant women in the U.S. In 2010, the World Health Organization stated no new regulations limiting BPA use were needed, calling such actions premature.

In 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said BPA was safe based on scientific evidence. However, the FDA’s Science Board later said the assessment was flawed and did not prove BPA was safe for infants. In 2010, the FDA acknowledged concerns about BPA’s effects on the brains and behavior of fetuses, infants, and young children. In 2012, the FDA banned BPA in baby bottles, but the Environmental Working Group called the ban “cosmetic” and urged a ban on BPA in infant formula and food packaging. The Natural Resources Defense Council said the ban was not enough and called for a full ban on BPA in all food packaging. A FDA spokesperson said the ban was not based on safety concerns and that BPA is safe for food-contact products.

A program led by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the National Toxicology Program (NTP), and the FDA (named CLARITY-BPA) found no effects of long-term BPA exposure in rats. The FDA continues to say BPA is safe for current uses.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set a safety level for BPA at 50 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day for mammals. However, exposure to lower doses has been shown to affect both male and female reproductive systems.

Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) are similar to BPA. They are found in thermal receipts, plastics, and household dust. Traces of BPS have also been found in personal care products. BPS is used in BPA-free items because of BPA bans, but studies show BPS and BPF can disrupt hormones as much as BPA.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was first used as a pesticide in 1936 to control Colorado potato beetles on crops. Its use expanded to fight diseases like malaria, typhus, dysentery, and typhoid fever by targeting the insects that spread these illnesses. Before World War II, pyrethrum, a natural insecticide from Japanese flowers, was used. Japan stopped exporting pyrethrum during the war, leading to the search for alternatives. DDT was used by soldiers to prevent typhus outbreaks by dusting beds, tents, and barracks.

After the war, DDT was approved for general use to increase crop yields and reduce malaria. However, its use in agriculture was later banned in most countries, while its use for malaria control is still allowed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

As early as 1946, scientists noticed DDT’s harmful effects on birds, beneficial insects, fish, and marine life. One well-known example was its impact on bird populations.

Temporal trends of body burden

Since DDT and PCB were banned, the average amounts of these chemicals in human bodies have decreased. After being banned in 1972, the amount of PCB in people’s bodies in 2009 was 1/100th of the levels found in the early 1980s. However, studies of breast milk samples from Europe show that PBDE levels are rising. Research comparing PBDE levels in breast milk from Europe, Canada, and the United States found that North American women have 40 times more PBDE than Swedish women. In North America, PBDE levels are increasing by about twice every 2 to 6 years.

Scientists have suggested that the slow, long-term decrease in average body temperature since the start of the industrial revolution might be linked to problems with thyroid hormone signals.

Animal models

Endocrine disruptors can affect important body systems, such as those involved in metabolism, reproduction, and hormone control. Scientists use animal models to study the risks of these chemicals. Common animals used for this research include mice, fish egg yolks, and frogs.

Genetically modified mice are used to study genetic influences. For example, some mouse populations are created from a mix of eight different strains. These include wild-derived strains (with high genetic diversity) and strains developed in labs. Each unique genetic line helps scientists test how endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) affect the body.

The CC population includes 83 inbred mouse strains that were developed over many generations from the eight founder strains. DO mice share the same genetic material as CC mice but have two key differences: each DO mouse is unique, allowing scientists to study many individuals in one experiment, and DO mice cannot be bred to create exact copies.

Mice are often genetically modified by adding genes from other organisms, creating transgenic lines (thousands of these lines exist). This process, like CRISPR, allows scientists to change specific genes. In EDC research, scientists use mice with human-like genes (humanized models) and mice with specific genes removed (knockout lines) to study how EDCs affect body functions. While transgenic rodents are useful, they take a long time to create and are costly.

Studies using rodents can help scientists understand if EDCs affect behaviors linked to disorders. Prairie and pine voles, which are socially monogamous (they stay with one partner), are useful models for studying human social behaviors and how EDCs might influence them.

The endocrine systems of mammals and fish are similar, so zebrafish (Danio rerio) are used in research. Zebrafish embryos are clear, small (larvae are less than a few millimeters long), and have simple ways of being affected by EDCs. They also share similar body functions, senses, body structures, and signaling systems with mammals. Scientists also benefit from zebrafish having a fully mapped genome and many transgenic lines available for breeding. Zebrafish and mammalian genomes are about 80% similar, with many human genes found in the fish.

Directions of research

Research on endocrine disruptors is difficult because of five challenges that require special study methods and careful planning:

• The way disruptors work may differ depending on where they act. Even if they share a common method, such as interacting with hormone receptors, their effects might also depend on other factors, like how hormones are carried in the blood, how they are broken down, or how the body’s feedback systems adjust over time.
• The timing of effects can be complex. Harm caused by disruptors during early development, such as in embryos or fetuses, may not appear until much later in life or even affect future generations.
• When multiple disruptors are present together, their combined effects can be different from the effects of each one alone. These interactions may be simple or very complicated.
• The relationship between the amount of a disruptor and its effects is not always straightforward. Sometimes, small or medium amounts can cause stronger effects than larger amounts.
• The effects of disruptors may vary depending on the sex of the embryo or fetus. Female and male embryos or fetuses may respond differently to the same disruptor.

Legal approach

In the United States, many laws help regulate endocrine disruptors. These laws include the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Food Quality Protection Act, the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Clean Air Act.

The U.S. Congress has helped improve how drugs and chemicals are tested and regulated. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996 required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to address endocrine disruption by creating a program to screen and test chemical substances.

In 1998, the EPA announced the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. This program included a way to decide which chemicals to test first, and it aimed to screen and test more than 85,000 chemicals used in products. The Food Quality Protection Act required the EPA to test pesticides for effects similar to estrogen in humans. It also allowed the EPA to test other chemicals and endocrine effects. Based on advice from a group of experts, the EPA expanded the program to include testing for male hormones, the thyroid system, and effects on fish and wildlife.

The program uses lab tests to see if chemicals interact with hormone receptors, such as estrogen or androgen receptors. It also uses studies on animals, like observing the development of tadpoles or the growth of uteruses in young rodents. More detailed testing examines effects in mammals (such as rats) and other animals (like frogs, fish, birds, and invertebrates). Animal testing is needed to ensure scientific accuracy, but some groups oppose it. Testing in humans would also be required to confirm effects in people, though this is also opposed by some.

After missing several deadlines, the EPA began testing suspected endocrine disruptors in early 2007, 11 years after the program was announced. When the final testing plan was shared, some people criticized its design. Critics said the process was influenced by chemical companies. In 2005, the EPA asked experts to review the program. They found the program’s goals and scientific questions were appropriate, but this review happened before the final testing plan was announced. The EPA still struggles to create a reliable and efficient testing program.

By 2016, the EPA had tested 1,800 chemicals for estrogen-related effects.

In 2013, the European Union proposed banning some pesticides containing endocrine disruptors. However, U.S. trade negotiators asked the EU to remove these rules, saying regulations should be based on risk assessments. Later that day, a European official asked for the rules to be removed.

The European Commission planned to set rules by December 2013 to identify endocrine-disrupting chemicals in thousands of products, including disinfectants, pesticides, and toiletries. These chemicals are linked to cancer, birth defects, and developmental problems in children. However, the process was delayed, leading Sweden to threaten legal action in 2014. Sweden blamed pressure from the chemical industry for the delay.

Sweden’s Environment Minister, Lena Ek, said hormone-disrupting chemicals are a serious problem, citing examples like fish with both male and female traits and reports linking these chemicals to fertility issues in children. Denmark also called for action.

In 2014, a report by the Nordic Council of Ministers estimated that endocrine disruptors may cost European health systems between 59 million and 1.18 billion euros annually. The report noted this was only a small part of the total health costs related to endocrine issues.

In 2020, the European Union released a plan to shift the chemical industry toward safer practices, reducing reliance on harmful chemicals like xenohormones.

Environmental and human body cleanup

There is evidence that when a pollutant is no longer used or heavily restricted, the amount of that pollutant in the human body decreases. Large-scale monitoring programs have helped identify the most common pollutants found in people. The first step to reducing these pollutants in the body is to stop or reduce their production.

The second step is to raise awareness about foods that may contain high levels of pollutants and label them clearly. This approach has been successful in the past, such as when pregnant and nursing women are advised not to eat seafood with high mercury levels.

The most difficult challenge is finding ways to remove these pollutants from the environment and deciding where to focus cleanup efforts. Even pollutants that are no longer produced can remain in the environment and build up in the food chain. Understanding how these chemicals move through ecosystems is important for finding ways to remove them. Global efforts have helped identify the most common persistent organic pollutants (POPs) found in the environment. These pollutants are grouped to make information easier for the public. This has allowed countries to work together to test and reduce the use of these chemicals. By reducing their presence in the environment, the spread of POPs into food sources that affect the U.S. population can be limited.

Many long-lasting pollutants, such as PCBs, DDT, and PBDEs, build up in river and ocean sediments. The EPA uses several methods, as described in their Green Remediation program, to clean up heavily polluted areas. Naturally occurring microbes are used to break down PCBs in contaminated areas.

There are many examples of successful cleanup efforts at large polluted sites. A 10-acre landfill in Austin, Texas, once filled with illegally dumped chemicals, was restored to a wetland and educational park in one year. A U.S. uranium enrichment site contaminated with uranium and PCBs was cleaned using advanced equipment to locate pollutants in the soil. At a polluted wetlands site, soil and water were cleaned of VOCs, PCBs, and lead. Native plants were planted to filter the environment, and a community program was created to monitor pollution levels. These examples show that cleanup can be done quickly and effectively.

Studies show that pollutants like bisphenol A (BPA), certain PCBs, and phthalates are often removed from the body through sweat. Recent scientific methods have been developed to help the body eliminate pollutants faster. For example, enzymes like laccase and peroxidase can break down BPA into less harmful substances. Another method uses highly reactive chemicals to break down BPA.

Economic effects

Human exposure can cause certain health problems, such as lower intelligence, adult obesity, female reproductive issues, and male reproductive issues. These problems may result in reduced work ability, long-term health challenges, or early death in some individuals. One study suggested that, in the European Union, the economic effects of these issues might be about twice as large as those caused by mercury and lead contamination.

Over the past 5 years, the economic and social costs of health problems linked to EDCs were estimated at about €163 in the EU and $340 billion in the USA. This number might be lower than the actual cost because many health problems caused by EDC exposure are difficult to measure.