An electric bicycle, or e-bike, is a type of bicycle that has a built-in electric motor to help the rider move forward. E-bikes come in many types worldwide, but most are divided into two main groups: those that require the rider to pedal (called pedelecs) and those that use buttons or a twist grip to control the motor, similar to mopeds. Both types still allow the rider to pedal and are not classified as electric motorcycles. E-bikes use rechargeable batteries and are usually powered by the motor up to 25 to 32 km/h (16 to 20 mph), with some reaching speeds of up to 45 km/h (28 mph).

Depending on local laws, many e-bikes—especially pedelecs—are legally considered bicycles instead of mopeds or motorcycles. This means they are not subject to stricter rules that apply to more powerful two-wheelers, such as requirements for licenses or safety equipment. E-bikes are often treated separately under specific laws related to electric bicycles.

Bicycles, e-bikes, e-scooters, and e-cargo bikes are often grouped together as micro-mobility vehicles. When comparing traditional bicycles, e-bikes, and e-scooters, regular bicycles may be too slow or limited in distance for people who are older, weaker, or less active, but they can be very fast and long-lasting for athletic riders. E-scooters are not considered a form of active transportation and do not provide health benefits. E-bikes, especially pedelecs, are unique because they combine the benefits of physical activity with accessibility, as their motor helps riders travel farther and climb hills with less effort. This makes them suitable for many users. However, legal and technical limits often keep their speeds and distances lower, making them better for short trips like shopping or commuting rather than long-distance travel or sports.

History

In the 1890s, electric bicycles were recorded in several U.S. patents. For example, on December 31, 1895, Ogden Bolton Jr. received a patent for a battery-powered bicycle with a "6-pole brush-and-commutator direct current (DC) hub motor mounted in the rear wheel" (U.S. patent 552,271). This design had no gears, and the motor could use up to 100 amperes from a 10-volt battery.

Two years later, in 1897, Hosea W. Libbey of Boston created an electric bicycle (U.S. patent 596,272) that used a "double electric motor." The motor was placed inside the hub of the crankset axle, and the battery power could be adjusted based on whether the road was flat or sloped. (This model was later re-invented and copied in the late 1990s by Giant Lafree e-bikes.)

By 1898, Mathew J. Steffens patented a rear-wheel drive electric bicycle that used a driving belt along the outside edge of the wheel. In 1899, John Schnepf (U.S. patent 627,066) designed an electric bicycle with a rear-wheel friction, "roller-wheel"-style drive. In 1969, Schnepf's invention was improved by G.A. Wood Jr. (U.S. patent 3,431,994). Wood's design used four small motors connected through a series of gears.

Hub motors were not popular until the late 2000s when they became popular again on low-cost electric bicycles.

Starting in 1992, Vector Services Limited offered the Zike e-bike. This bicycle had nickel–cadmium (NiCad) batteries built into the frame and included a 850 g (30 oz) permanent-magnet motor.

Torque sensors and power controls were developed in the late 1990s. For example, a Japanese patent (6163148) was granted in 1997 to a team led by Yutaka Takada for a "Sensor, drive force auxiliary device … and torque sensor zero point adjusting mechanism."

In 1997, American car executive Lee Iacocca started EV Global Motors, a company that made an electric bicycle called E-bike SX. This was one of the first attempts to make e-bikes popular in the United States.

By 2007, e-bikes were believed to make up 10 to 20 percent of all two-wheeled vehicles in major Chinese cities. A typical e-bike takes eight hours to charge its battery, which provides a range of 40 to 48 kilometers (25 to 30 miles) at a speed of about 20 kilometers per hour (12 miles per hour).

In the 2010s, electric bicycles gained a lot of attention in Europe because of government policies and growing interest in environmental protection. Countries like Germany and the Netherlands became major markets for e-bikes, aiming to reduce traffic congestion and carbon emissions. The development of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery technology also helped e-bikes become more widely used. These batteries charge faster, weigh less, and provide longer ranges, making e-bikes more efficient and practical for everyday use.

Definition and classes

As of 2025, many countries do not have clear rules about e-bikes. They may lack standards for quality, rules about who can ride them or where, or even a clear legal definition of what e-bikes are.

E-bikes are grouped based on the power of their motor and how the motor is controlled. This classification is complicated because it depends on legal definitions of what is considered a bicycle, a moped, or a motorcycle. Because of this, how e-bikes are classified differs widely across countries and local areas.

Despite these challenges, e-bikes are mainly classified by whether the motor helps the rider through a pedal-assist system or a power-on-demand system. Here are the definitions:

• Pedal-assist: The motor turns on only when the rider pedals. The motor helps the rider’s effort while pedaling. These e-bikes, called pedelecs, use sensors to detect how fast or hard the rider is pedaling. The motor stops when the brakes are used.
• Power-on-demand: The motor turns on manually using a throttle, usually located on the handlebar, like on a motorcycle or scooter.

In general, e-bikes can be divided into two main categories:

• E-bikes with partially mandatory pedal-assist:
• Pedelecs: These are legally classified as bicycles in many places. The motor helps only up to a limited speed (usually 24 or 25 km/h (15 or 15.5 mph)) and has a motor power of up to 250 W (0.34 hp).
• S-Pedelecs: These are often legally classified as mopeds or motorcycles. They have higher motor power (more than 250 W (0.34 hp)) and can reach higher speeds (up to 45 km/h (28 mph)) before the motor stops assisting.

• E-bikes with power-on-demand: These use a manual throttle (like a twist-grip) instead of or in addition to a pedal-assist system.

The term "pedelec" comes from "pedal electric cycle" and refers to e-bikes that require the rider to pedal. They have a low-powered motor and limited top speed. In the European Union, a pedelec is legally classified as a bicycle if:
1. The motor only helps when the rider is pedaling.
2. The motor stops helping once the speed reaches 25 km/h (15.5 mph).
3. The motor has a maximum power of 250 W (0.34 hp) (it can produce more power for short periods, like when accelerating or climbing hills).

E-bikes that meet these conditions are considered pedelecs in the EU and are legally classified as bicycles. This standard is used in the EU and has been adopted by some non-EU countries, such as the UK and parts of Australia.

Pedelecs work similarly to regular bicycles but allow riders to travel faster, especially when climbing hills or fighting headwinds. This makes them useful for people in hilly areas or those who need extra help due to age or health issues.

More powerful e-bikes, called S-Pedelecs, are not classified as bicycles. They have motors with more than 250 W (0.34 hp) and can continue assisting the rider even after reaching 25 km/h (15.5 mph). These are usually classified as mopeds or motorcycles, which may require registration, insurance, a driver’s license, and helmets. For example:
– In Switzerland, S-Pedelecs have a motor power limit of 1,000 W (1.3 hp) and a speed limit of 45 km/h (28 mph) when using the motor.
– In the United States, many states classify S-Pedelecs as Class 3 e-bikes, limited to 750 W (1.01 hp) and 45 km/h (28 mph).
– In Australia, S-Pedelecs are only allowed on private property.

Some e-bikes use a power-on-demand system, where the motor is controlled manually using a throttle. Riders can:
1. Ride using only pedal power.
2. Ride using only the motor by turning the throttle.
3. Use both pedal power and the motor at the same time.
4. Use a pedal-assist system if one is available.

Some power-on-demand e-bikes are not classified as bicycles. For example, the Noped is a term used in Ontario, Canada, for e-bikes without pedals.

Popularity

E-bike use around the world has grown quickly since 1998. China is the largest maker of e-bikes globally. According to the China Bicycle Association, a group created by the government to manage the industry, in 2004, Chinese companies sold 7.5 million e-bikes nationwide, which was nearly double the sales of 2003. Domestic sales reached 10 million in 2005 and 16 to 18 million in 2006. In 2016, about 210 million electric bikes were used every day in China.

According to CONEBI, a trade organization, electric bike sales in the European Union were over 5 million in 2021. This was higher than 2 million in 2016, 700,000 in 2010, and 200,000 in 2007. In 2019, the EU placed a tax of 79.3% on e-bikes imported from China to help local producers. In 2022, electric bikes continued to increase in popularity in the EU, making up 57% of all bike sales in the Netherlands, 49% in Austria, 48% in Germany, and 47% in Belgium.

Motors and drivetrains

Electric bicycles often use DC motors, which can be brushed or brushless. These motors come in different types, such as direct-drive or geared, and vary in cost and complexity. An electric power-assist system can be added to most pedal cycles using chain drive, belt drive, hub motors, or friction drive.

Brushless hub motors are frequently used in modern electric bicycles. These motors are built into the wheel hub, with the stator attached to the axle and the magnets rotating with the wheel. The motor is part of the bicycle's wheel hub. The power of these motors depends on legal limits, and many are under 750 watts. In front-drive systems, the motor is in the front wheel hub, and in rear-drive systems, it is in the rear wheel hub. Hub motors were used in 19th-century electric bicycles but were less common until their return in the 2000s.

Another type of motor is the mid-drive system, where the motor is placed near the bottom bracket instead of inside the wheel. This motor provides power to the pedals, which is then transferred to the wheel through the bicycle’s standard chain and gears. A freewheel crank, which allows the motor to rotate freely, is needed in mid-drive systems to keep the motor operating within its best speed range.

Because power is delivered through the chain and gears, mid-drive motors are usually limited to about 250–500 watts to avoid damaging the drivetrain. If a mid-drive motor is paired with an internal gear hub, care must be taken because there is no clutch to reduce shock when gears re-engage. Using a continuously variable transmission or an internal gear hub with oil-based coupling can help reduce these shocks.

Mid-drive motors have an advantage over hub motors because they use the bicycle’s existing gears. This allows the motor to work efficiently across a wide range of speeds. Without gears, hub motors are less effective for climbing steep hills slowly or moving quickly on flat ground.

Batteries

E-bikes use rechargeable batteries, electric motors, and a control system. Common battery types include sealed lead–acid (SLA), nickel–cadmium (NiCad), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion). Batteries differ in voltage, total charge capacity (measured in amp hours), weight, how many times they can be charged before losing power, and their ability to handle high voltage. Operating e-bikes uses little energy, but replacing batteries can be expensive, especially if they fail early. Battery lifespan depends on how they are used, including charging temperature. Charging at room temperature and using partial charge cycles helps batteries last longer. Lithium-ion batteries do not have a memory effect, so using partial charges does not harm their performance, except for slightly reducing range per charge.

Some studies have tested super capacitors as alternatives to batteries for cars and some SUVs. In the late 1980s, e-bikes used in Switzerland for the Tour de Sol solar race had solar charging stations. These were first on the bikes and later fixed on rooftops to connect to electric power lines. Today, e-bikes are often charged from the main electricity supply.

Lithium-ion batteries in e-bikes and similar vehicles, like electric scooters, have been closely watched since 2019 because they can overheat and catch fire. More expensive lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries are safer and non-toxic. More e-bike fires have occurred as e-bikes became popular and regulations were not strict enough. Lower-quality batteries are more likely to have defects that cause them to swell or burst. However, larger, well-known manufacturers with proper chargers rarely have these issues. In 2024, Giant Manufacturing, the world’s largest e-bike maker, stated it had never had a battery failure. Workers who depend on e-bikes for jobs may choose cheaper or used bikes, which are more likely to break. Cities like New York and San Francisco now require all electric mobility devices sold to have UL safety certifications.

Range is an important factor for e-bikes and depends on motor use, battery size, speed, aerodynamics, rolling resistance, hills, and the weight of the bike and rider.

An e-bike with a 70 kg rider (total weight ≈100 kg) can travel about 5.6 kilometers on a 10% slope at 25 km/h using only battery power (assuming a frontal area of 0.4 square meters, drag coefficient of 0.7, altitude of 100 meters, wind speed of 10 km/h, and rolling resistance of 0.007). If the rider helps, the range increases.

Some e-bikes with hub motors, like those developed by BionX and its later models, use regenerative braking. The motor acts as a generator to slow the bike before brakes are used. This helps extend battery life and reduces wear on brake pads and wheels.

Experiments with fuel cells to increase range have also been tested, such as the 2007 PHB model.

Design variations

Not all e-bikes look like regular bicycles with a built-in motor, such as the Cytronex bikes, which have a small battery that looks like a water bottle. Changing a regular bicycle into an electric one can be difficult, but many "replace a wheel" kits are now available for purchase.

Electric cargo bikes help riders carry heavy or large items that would be hard to move without electric power. These bikes also allow adults to keep biking even after having children, making it easier to transport kids without using a car.

There are many different e-bike designs. Some have batteries attached to the frame, while others are placed inside the bike’s tubes. Some models use wide tires for better stability and off-road use. Many of these designs follow local laws, and bikes with pedals can be used on roads in the United Kingdom and other countries.

Folding e-bikes are also available. Electric self-balancing unicycles do not follow e-bike rules in most countries and cannot be used on roads, but they may be allowed on sidewalks. These are the least expensive electric vehicles and are used by people who travel short distances, in cities, and to connect with public transport like buses. They are not allowed on public roads, including sidewalks and cycle paths, in the United Kingdom.

Electric trikes that follow e-bike rules have also been made. These provide extra stability at low speeds and are often used by people with disabilities. Cargo-carrying trikes are becoming more common, with some couriers using them to deliver packages in city centers. New designs of these trikes look like a mix between a regular bike and a small van.

• A diagram showing a regular bicycle turned into an e-bike using a store-bought conversion kit
• A folding e-bike
• A modern electric cargo trike being used in London, carrying up to 250 kg (550 lb)
• An electric unicycle
• Some vehicles may not be officially called electric bicycles, but transportation officials might group them with e-bikes.

Health effects

Research shows that using e-bikes can increase physical activity. In seven European cities, e-bike users burned 10% more energy each week than other cyclists because they traveled longer distances. However, a study from the University of Tennessee found that e-bikes use 24% less energy and require 64% less oxygen than regular bicycles, and 64% less than walking. The study also noted that e-bikes use significantly less energy than bicycles when going uphill.

E-bikes can help people who struggle with long exercise sessions, such as those with injuries or weight issues. These bikes allow riders to take breaks from pedaling and give users confidence to complete trips without overexerting themselves. Some electric bikes let riders adjust motor power based on the terrain, which helps protect joints like the knees.

Some people claim they lost weight using e-bikes. However, a recent study found that e-bike users tend to have higher body mass indexes (BMIs) than regular bike users. E-bikes make biking easier, so people who might not otherwise bike can use electric assistance when needed and pedal when possible.

E-bikes may be helpful in cardiac rehabilitation programs, as doctors often recommend stationary bikes early in recovery. Programs that include exercise can reduce deaths from heart disease by about 27%.

Safety concerns exist when e-bikes travel longer distances or at higher speeds, which can lead to more serious accidents. Drivers may not notice how fast e-bikes move, and older riders may travel faster than before. Dangerous situations can occur at road crossings. In Germany, a research group tested e-bikes through road tests, performance tests, and crash tests to study safety.

Some e-bike users say they ride more carefully because the motor helps them brake and accelerate with less effort. In Bavaria, 6,186 bicycle-related accidents occurred in 2012, with 76 involving e-bikes. These numbers suggest e-bikes are not more likely to be in accidents than regular bikes.

S-Pedelecs, which can go faster, may carry extra risks due to higher speeds and longer trips.

A 2014 study in Germany found no difference in how likely e-bike users are to face dangerous situations compared to regular cyclists. A 2015 study in Sweden found that e-bike riders may be in more critical incidents but with less severe outcomes. They also had fewer dangerous interactions with cars.

In the United States, about 53,200 emergency room visits related to e-bikes happened between 2017 and 2022. During this time, 104 e-bike-related deaths occurred, making up 45% of all deaths from micromobility (small vehicles like e-bikes). A new law in San Diego County, Assembly Bill 2234, allows cities to set a minimum age for e-bike riders.

Environmental effects

E-bikes are vehicles that do not produce harmful gases from burning fuel. However, the environmental effects of making electricity, distributing power, and manufacturing and recycling batteries must be considered.

According to a 2011 study updated with new energy data, e-bikes on average produce 15 grams of CO₂ per person traveling one kilometer. This includes 7 grams from making the bike, 2 grams from producing the electricity used, and 6 grams from food production. This is less than for bikes without motors, which produce 21 grams of CO₂ per person-kilometer, with 5 grams from manufacturing and 16 grams from food energy. Other forms of transport produce more emissions, such as 50 grams of CO₂ per person-kilometer for electric cars (driven by one person) or walking, and 100 grams for buses with ten passengers. Buses with over 60 passengers would have similar emissions to e-bikes. These numbers are estimates and can vary based on the type of vehicle, the people using it, and energy sources. For example, an e-bike rider using climate-neutral food and electricity might produce 7 grams of CO₂ per kilometer, while someone eating beef could produce over 570 grams of CO₂ per kilometer if other factors remain the same.

E-bikes produce much less pollution than traditional motorcycles and cars. They are often considered a good choice for reducing environmental harm in cities.

A 2018 study in England found that using e-bikes instead of cars could reduce car emissions in England by up to 50% (about 30 million tons per year).

A 2020 study in Yorkshire, England, suggested that e-bikes could have the greatest impact in rural and suburban areas. People in cities already have many low-carbon travel options, so encouraging e-bike use outside cities could help reduce emissions. The study also noted that e-bikes might help people affected by rising transportation costs.

The environmental impact of recharging e-bike batteries can be reduced. E-bikes use smaller batteries than electric cars, making them good candidates for charging with solar power or other renewable energy. For example, Sanyo created "solar parking lots" where e-bike riders can charge their bikes under solar panels while parked.

E-bikes and similar hybrid vehicles are being used by some cities, such as Little Rock, Arkansas, with electric bicycles, and Cloverdale, California, with police e-bikes. In China, companies like Xinri are working with universities to improve e-bike technology to meet international environmental standards, supported by the Chinese government.

Some groups argue that e-bikes should not be allowed on outdoor trails used by mountain bikes because they might cause safety issues or damage trails. However, a study by the International Mountain Bicycling Association found that low-powered e-bikes may have similar effects on trails as traditional mountain bikes.

A 2010 study compared e-bikes to other transportation methods and found that e-bikes are:

• 18 times more energy efficient than an SUV
• 13 times more energy efficient than a sedan
• 6 times more energy efficient than rail transit
• About as harmful to the environment as a regular bicycle

Strict rules exist for shipping lithium-ion batteries because of safety concerns. Lithium iron phosphate batteries are safer than lithium cobalt oxide batteries.

Experience by country

Laws in China have increased the use of e-bikes, with rental services growing to meet this need. Pedelecs are available through the Call a Bike program in Berlin. Delivery e-bikes with license plates are used in Manhattan, New York City. Police e-bikes are also used in São Paulo, Brazil.

China saw a large increase in the sale of non-assisted e-bikes, including scooter-style models. Sales rose from 56,000 units in 1998 to over 21 million in 2008, and reached about 120 million e-bikes by early 2010. This growth happened because local governments tried to reduce traffic problems and accidents by limiting motorcycles in city centers. By late 2009, more than ninety major Chinese cities banned or limited motorcycles. Commuters started using e-bikes instead of traditional bicycles or motorcycles as a way to avoid using cars. However, safety issues remain, as about 2,500 e-bike-related deaths were reported in 2007. By late 2009, ten cities also banned or limited e-bikes for the same reasons. These cities included Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Changsha, Foshan, Changzhou, and Dongguang.

In April 2019, new rules in China changed how e-bikes are regulated. These rules set limits on weight, speed, and voltage. E-bikes meeting these standards, including a top speed of 25 km/h, are legally considered bicycles and do not need registration. E-bikes that do not meet these standards are treated as motorcycles and require helmets and licenses.

China is the world’s largest producer of e-bikes, making 22.2 million units in 2009. Major companies like BYD and Geoby manufacture e-bikes. Production is mainly in five regions: Tianjin, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Shanghai. In 2009, China exported 370,000 e-bikes. By 2019, about 223,000 companies in China were involved in the e-bike industry. As of 2025, there are 380 million registered e-bikes in China. New e-bikes must be made from fire-resistant plastic, contain at least 94.5% metal, and weigh no more than 63 kg.

In 2012, Germany had about 600,000 e-bikes on the road, mostly pedelecs. Sales grew quickly, with 310,000–340,000 e-bikes sold in 2011, which was 55% more than in 2010. In 2011, there were about 70 million regular bicycles in Germany.

By 2019, e-bike sales in Germany reached over one million per year. Sales increased to two million by 2024, slightly surpassing sales of regular bicycles from 2023.

In 2021, the electric bicycle market in India was valued at $1.14 million and is expected to grow to $2.31 million by 2027, with an average yearly increase of 12.69%.

Japan introduced e-bikes under new rules in 1994. By mid-1994, Yamaha sold 30,000 e-bikes, and by mid-1997, sales reached 200,000.

In the Netherlands, there are 23 million bicycles for a population of 18 million (as of 2024). E-bikes made up 10% of bicycle sales by 2009. Sales increased from 40,000 units in 2006 to 153,000 in 2009. In 2009, e-bikes accounted for 25% of total bicycle sales revenue. By early 2010, one in every eight bicycles sold was an e-bike, even though e-bikes cost about three times more than regular bicycles. E-bike sales surpassed regular bicycle sales in 2019, with 423,000 e-bikes sold, and reached 547,000 in 2020.

A 2008 survey in the Netherlands found that people ride standard bicycles an average of 6.3 kilometers (3.9 miles) for commuting, but e-bike riders travel about 9.8 kilometers (6.1 miles). E-bikes are especially popular among people aged 65 and older, but less common among commuters. They are often used for recreation, shopping, and errands.

In 2009, the U.S. had about 200,000 e-bikes. By 2012, e-bikes were widely used for food delivery in New York City. The North American e-bike market is expected to grow by 10.13% each year from 2021 to 2028.

Use in warfare

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukraine used donated electric bicycles to move light anti-tank weapons. This is similar to how bicycle infantry were used in past wars, especially by Japanese forces.