A bicycle-sharing system, also called a bike share program, public bicycle scheme, or public bike share (PBS) scheme, is a service that lets people rent bicycles or electric bicycles for short trips at a low cost.

These systems are created to offer an affordable, flexible, and eco-friendly way to travel. They often help people get to and from public transportation, reduce traffic jams, and lower pollution.

Today, most systems use either docked networks, where bikes are rented and returned at fixed stations, or dockless systems, which use GPS and mobile apps for more flexible use. Since the 2000s, new technology has helped these systems grow quickly, with thousands now operating in cities worldwide.

Bicycle-sharing systems began with community efforts in Europe in the mid-1960s. By 2022, bike share programs were available in about 3,000 cities, including Dubai, New York, Paris, Mexico City, Montreal, and Barcelona. These systems are now important parts of city transportation plans, offering benefits like better access to transportation, reduced pollution, and improved health by encouraging physical activity.

However, these systems also face problems, such as stolen or damaged bikes, uneven bike distribution, high costs for operation and repairs, and concerns about cluttered city streets, especially with dockless systems.

History

The first well-known community bicycle program was the White Bicycle Plan (Dutch: Wittefietsenplan) in Amsterdam. It began in the summer of 1965, led by Luud Schimmelpennink and linked to the Provo movement. The group painted 50 bicycles white and placed them in different parts of the city. These bikes were meant to be used freely by the public for short trips. This was one of several "White Plans" the movement proposed to improve life and transportation in Amsterdam.

Within a month, most of the bikes were stolen, and the remaining ones were found in nearby canals. Similar programs still exist in other parts of the Netherlands, such as at Hoge Veluwe National Park, where bikes can be used freely within the park. Years later, Schimmelpennink said the 1960s experiment did not happen as people believed. He explained that no more than 10 bikes were placed on the streets as a symbol of the idea. Police took all the white bikes from the public within a day, so the experiment lasted less than a month.

In his 1975 book Ecotopia, Ernest Callenbach described a society that does not use fossil fuels. He included a bicycle-sharing system that is part of a larger public transportation network.

One of the first community bicycle projects in the United States began in Portland, Oregon, in 1994. Civic and environmental activists Tom O'Keefe, Joe Keating, and Steve Gunther started the Yellow Bike Project. Like the White Bicycle Plan, they placed bikes on the streets for public use. The program gained attention but failed because of theft and damage. It was later replaced by the Create A Commuter (CAC) program, which gives free used bikes to low-income people to help them get to work or job training.

In 1995, the ByCylken system started in Copenhagen. Morten Sadolin and Ole Wessung created it after they were victims of bicycle theft. The system had 300 bikes and special locking stands where riders paid a refundable deposit. This was the first large-scale bike-sharing program with bikes designed so their parts could not be used on other bikes.

Later, bike-sharing programs used smart cards to prevent theft. One early example was the Grippa bike storage system in Portsmouth, UK. The Bikeabout program, launched in 1995 by the University of Portsmouth, used smart cards to unlock bikes. Users paid a small fee and used magnetic cards at a kiosk to get a bike. Cameras helped stop vandalism. When returning a bike, the card locked the rack and recorded if the bike was damaged or if the rental time was too long. The program had limited success due to few kiosks, short operating hours, and weather issues. It was stopped in 1998, and costs were never fully shared.

Modern bike-sharing systems began in France. In 1998, the city of Rennes launched Velo à la Carte using magnetic cards. Later, the French company JCDecaux expanded similar systems in Vienna, Lyon, and Paris. Vélib', the Paris system, became famous and inspired bike-sharing programs worldwide. In North America, Montreal started the BIXI project in 2009. BIXI grew quickly and was sold to other cities, including Washington D.C., New York City, and London. The company behind BIXI was taken over by Lyft in 2022.

Bike-sharing technology has improved over time, especially in Asia. Of the world’s 15 largest bike-sharing programs, 13 are in China. In 2012, Wuhan and Hangzhou had the largest systems with about 90,000 and 60,000 bikes, respectively. By 2016, about 1,000 cities worldwide had bike-sharing programs. Electric bikes are now also used in these systems.

In July 2020, Google Maps began showing bike-sharing options in its route suggestions.

Categorization

Bike-sharing systems have changed over time as society and technology have improved. These systems can be divided into five main types or generations.

Also called bicycle rental, bike hire, or zero generation systems, this type allows users to rent a bike from a location and return it to the same place. These systems are often used by tourists or people visiting for short trips. They are also used by cycling schools to help people learn how to ride without owning a bike. The stations for these systems are not automated and are managed by employees or volunteers.

Regional programs set up many rental locations at places like train stations, restaurants, museums, and hotels, creating a network of borrowing and returning points. For example, a train station employee might give a bike to a user who later returns it to a hotel. Some systems charge a fee, while others do not. Users usually need to register or leave a deposit. The EnCicla Bike Share System in Medellín started with 6 staffed stations in 2011 and later expanded to include 32 automatic and 19 staffed stations, becoming a mix of zero generation and third generation systems.

Sometimes called bike library systems, these allow users to borrow bikes for free, with a refundable deposit, or for a small fee. A user keeps a bike for several months and is encouraged to lock it between uses. These systems are used less often, with bikes typically used about three times a day, compared to 2 to 15 times a day for other systems. Benefits include users becoming familiar with the bike and having it ready at all times. Users can check out a bike like a library book, sign a liability waiver, and return it anytime. Choosing a bike instead of a car helps reduce car use. These systems often cost less to maintain because users care for the bikes during long rentals. Most are funded by donations and volunteer work, which limits how large the program can grow. For example, the Arcata Bike Library in California has loaned over 4,000 bikes using this system.

Also known as free bikes, unregulated, or first generation systems, these simply place bikes in a city or area for anyone to use. In some cases, like on a university campus, bikes are only for use within certain areas. Users leave bikes unlocked in public spaces after use. This can cause problems because bikes may not be available where needed, and users might not have a way to return to their starting point. This system has no cost for assigning bikes to users and is the easiest for people to start using. However, bikes without locks, user identification, or deposits are often stolen or damaged. Many programs have failed after a few years, like Portland’s Yellow Bike Project, while others, like Austin’s Yellow Bike Project, have lasted for decades. These systems often rely on volunteers and city support for repairs.

Also called Bycykel or second generation systems, this type was created in 1989 by Morten Sadolin and Ole Wessung of Copenhagen after they were victims of bike theft. They designed bikes with solid rubber tires and advertising plates that can be unlocked using a shopping cart return key and a coin (usually 20 DKK or 2 EUR). Users can borrow bikes for free and return them to any station to retrieve their deposit. These bikes are designed to be used in specific areas. The first small systems were launched in Denmark in 1991, and a larger system called Bycyklen started in Copenhagen in 1995. This system was later used in cities like Helsinki, Vienna, and Aarhus.

Also called docking stations, membership bicycles, or third generation systems, these use automated stations to borrow and return bikes. Users identify themselves with a membership card, smart card, phone, or other methods to rent a bike for a short time, usually up to three hours. Many systems offer the first half-hour for free. To reduce theft and damage, some systems now require users to pay a deposit or become a paid member. Users are responsible for any damage until the bike is returned. Some cities allow the same card used for public transport to unlock bikes.

This system was developed by Hellmut Slachta and Paul Brandstätter between 1990 and 1992. It was first used in 1996 in Portsmouth, England, and later in Rennes, France, and Oslo, Norway. Smart card technology was tested in Vienna and widely used in Lyon, France, and Paris, France, starting in 2005 and 2007. As of June 2014, over 1,000 systems of this type were operating in 50 countries across five continents, with 712 cities using about 806,200 bikes at 37,500 stations. The most common systems are in Spain (132), Italy (104), and China (79).

Integration with other transport systems

In many cities around the world, bike-sharing systems are connected to other public transportation. These systems are often used to help fix problems in the larger public transport network. Sometimes, local governments give discounts to people who use both bike-sharing systems and other public transportation to encourage more people to use public transit.

Some national programs combine bike-sharing with other systems. These programs often involve partnerships between train companies, infrastructure managers, and cycling organizations. These systems allow people to rent bikes for longer periods, up to 24 or 48 hours, and are available to tourists and for round trips. For example, in some German cities, the national rail company offers a bike rental service called Call a Bike.

In Guangzhou, China, the privately operated Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit system includes bike lanes and a public bicycle system. In London, the bicycle-sharing system is owned by the public transport authority. In Taipei, Taiwan, the system is built by a private company that works with the public transport sector through a partnership called BOT. In this case, the Taipei City Department of Transportation offers the system in collaboration with a local bicycle manufacturer called Giant Bicycles.

The city of Medellín in Colombia has 3.4 million people living in an area of 173 km. The city has faced challenges with transportation for a long time. EnCicla is a bike-sharing system in Medellín that connects with other transportation options, such as the Metro.

In 2010, three students from EAFIT University developed the idea for EnCicla as part of their final project. The system started operating in August 2012 after a pilot program showed it could be successful. EAFIT helped the city take charge of the system, which was added to Medellín's transportation plan. EnCicla includes both shared and separated bike lanes. In the first three months after launching, 15,700 bicycle rentals happened, and usage increased quickly. Medellín used historical data to solve a problem with bike demand, leading to a mix of different types of bikes at each station.

There are more than 90 EnCicla stations in 7 zones, with 13 connected to other transport systems. Since starting, over 13 million bikes have been rented by about 9,100 active members. The most used stations are in the western part of the city, near universities and train stations, where many people travel. To use EnCicla, people must register on the official website. The system is free for anyone 16 or older and is available from 5:30 to 10:00 PM on weekdays and 6:30 to 9:00 PM on Saturdays. Local residents must register online before using the system, while tourists can rent bikes with their passports.

EnCicla has helped improve Medellín’s transportation system. However, moving bikes between stations increases carbon emissions, which goes against the system’s environmental goals. To support the system, the city has programs to teach children over 8 years old how to ride safely.

YouBike is a bike-sharing system in the Taipei–Keelung area of Taiwan. It has automated stations near all Taipei Metro stations. This system helps solve the "last mile" problem, making it easier for people to reach their destinations after using public transport. YouBike is meant to help fix problems in the larger public transport system. Commuters can rent or return bikes near metro stations to connect with other transportation options.

Transfer Discount Offered for Commuters

Starting March 30, 2021, people who rent a YouBike in the Taipei–Keelung area get a NT$5 discount when using their EasyCard to switch between YouBike and Taipei Metro, local buses (except distance-based buses), or Danhai LRT within one hour. The discount is only available for direct transfers, and other transportation like trains, gondolas, or taxis cannot be used during the transfer.

According to data from the New Taipei City Government, YouBike has become an important way for metro commuters to reach stations. Up to 55% of people who use YouBike in September 2015 transfer to or from the Metro. In November 2016, most popular YouBike stations were near Taipei Metro stations. Analysis of transfer data shows that loyal users (those who use YouBike more than five times a week) transfer to or from the Metro 60% of the time.

In South Korea, shared bicycles in Seoul are called "Ddareungi." Ddareungi is a bike-sharing service that started testing in 2014 and officially began in October 2015. A 1-hour rental costs 1,000 Korean won (about 1 USD). To prevent theft, an extra 1,000 won is charged for each 30 minutes beyond the hour.

Transit Mileage is a benefit for people who use a 365-day commuter pass. If someone uses public transportation within 30 minutes of returning a Ddareungi bike, they earn points. If using a bus or subway is not possible, they can use Ddareungi instead.

To get a discount on Ddareungi fees, people must complete a bicycle safety education program and pass written and practical tests. Those who pass receive certification that reduces their fees for two years.

Starting March 1, 2020, a new way to rent and return bikes was introduced using QR codes. This method is convenient because users can rent or return bikes with one scan using a QR code lock. To rent, users buy a voucher through the app and scan the QR code on the bike. The lock opens automatically, and the bike is ready to use. Users can rent or return bikes anywhere without visiting a rental booth.

Existing Ddareungi bikes are only for people 15 or older. A new version called "Sprout Ddareungi" is available for people 13 or older. The government made the bikes smaller and lighter so that teenagers and older adults can use them easily.

More than 3 million people have used Seoul’s public bicycle system, Ddareungi.

Financing

Bicycle-sharing systems are supported by a mix of user fees, volunteers, donations, advertisements, business groups, and government funding. In the mid-2010s, the growth of dockless bike systems around the world was funded by investment capital.

User rental fees can range from about US$0.50 to $30.00 per day. Short rental periods, such as 15- or 20-minute intervals, may cost a few cents to $1.00. Many bike-share systems offer subscriptions that make the first 30–45 minutes of use free or very cheap, encouraging people to use bikes for travel. This allows each bike to be used by many people each day but reduces the total money earned. Monthly or yearly membership fees and initial registration costs may also apply. To prevent theft, users often need to provide a temporary deposit using a credit or debit card. If a bike is not returned on time or is returned in poor condition, the bike-sharing company may keep the deposit or charge the user’s card. In many cities in China, these systems are run by private companies.

In the 1990s, second and third-generation bike-sharing systems included advertising spaces on individual bikes, such as on the wheels or frame. Some systems are fully branded by sponsors. For example, London’s bike-sharing program was originally named and supported by Barclays Bank and later by Santander UK.

Several European cities, including Lyon and Paris in France, as well as London, Barcelona, Stockholm, and Oslo, have signed agreements with private advertising companies like JCDecaux and Clear Channel. These companies provide thousands of bikes to cities for free or at a small cost. In return, the companies are allowed to advertise on the bikes and in other public places, such as bus stops or stations.

Cities operate bike-sharing systems as a public service, covering the costs of starting the program, maintaining the bikes, and managing operations if other funding sources are not enough. Governments may also support these programs through one-time grants (to buy bikes), yearly or monthly subsidies, or by paying part of the wages for workers in repair shops that employ people who have been out of work for a long time. Some systems are run through partnerships between the government and private companies. In some cases, bike-sharing is part of a city’s public transportation system, such as Smoove. In Melbourne, the government helps reduce costs for bicycle helmets to help people follow the law that requires helmets when riding.

Usage patterns

Most bike-sharing systems let users return bicycles to any station in the system. This makes one-way trips easier because users do not need to return bikes to the starting point. One bike can be used for 10–15 trips each day by different users and may be ridden up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi) in a year, as seen in Vélo'v in Lyon, France. Each bike is used by at least one unique rider per day. This means that in 2014, there were at least 294 million unique bike-sharing users worldwide (806,200 bicycles × 365 days), though some estimates are much higher.

In cities like Paris and Copenhagen, studies show that having a high number of available bikes is needed for systems to be effective. In Copenhagen, 2,500 bikes are limited to use within a 9 km (3.5 sq mi) area of the city center. A fine of DKK 1,000 is charged for taking bikes across canal bridges near the city’s edge. In Paris, the Vélib' program charges extra fees after the first 30 minutes of free use, which discourages users from taking bikes outside the city center. Stations in inner city areas are spaced 300–400 meters (1,000–1,300 ft) apart.

In the United States, male users made more than 80% of all bike-sharing trips in 2017.

A 2015 study in the journal Transportation found that bike-sharing systems can be grouped into categories based on their size. Larger systems show different usage patterns across stations, while smaller systems have similar daily use patterns across stations.

The Meddin Bike-Sharing World Map shows details about bike-sharing services worldwide. It includes information about programs, providers, bike types (manual or electric), the number of bikes and stations, and availability in an easy-to-use map format.

The General Bikeshare Feed Specification is a standardized format for sharing mobility data. It provides real-time updates about the current status of a mobility service at a specific moment.

Economic impact

Bike-sharing programs can cause both good and bad effects on the economy. The good effects include fewer extra parking spaces in busy areas, less traffic, and less pollution. The bad effects may include making city areas look less clean. These programs also have money-related impacts. Some effects, like less traffic, can be measured with data and might be managed through government help. Other effects, like clutter on streets and sidewalks, are harder to measure and may not be managed easily.

In public economics, the government may need to step in if markets don’t work well or if resources need to be shared more fairly. Studies show bike-sharing programs often help reduce traffic and pollution, which are positive effects. These programs do not always provide the best balance of benefits for everyone, so government help, like giving money to support them, can help fix this. Many cities use partnerships between companies and the government to offer bike-sharing, such as Washington, D.C.’s Capital Bikeshare program.

Many bike-sharing companies and partnerships aim to provide shared bikes as a public good. For something to be a public good, it must be available to everyone and using it by one person should not stop others from using it. Some bike-sharing programs offer free or very cheap access, making them closer to being available to everyone. To meet the second requirement, bikes must be placed in enough locations across a city. Challenges include moving bikes from areas with few users to areas with many users. Companies like Mobike in China pay users to move bikes to busy areas. Citi Bike in New York City has a similar program called "Bike Angel," which gives discounts and rewards to people who help balance bike distribution.

Other companies, like oBike, use a points system to discourage bad behavior, such as parking bikes illegally. Experts think combining fair pricing with good rules can help solve problems like too many bikes and clutter.

In 2018, the Chinese bike-sharing market had too many bikes because companies added millions of bikes without clear rules. People did not know how to use the systems properly and often left bikes in random places. City governments had to remove bikes that blocked public areas, and millions of bikes were thrown away when the companies that owned them failed.

Environmental, health and social impacts

One main goal of bike-sharing systems is to reduce traffic congestion, especially in large cities. Studies show that this goal has been reached to different levels in various cities. A 2015 article in Transport Reviews looked at bike-share systems in five cities, including Washington, D.C., and Minneapolis. The study found that in D.C., people used bike-share rides instead of driving 8% of the time, and nearly 20% of the time in Minneapolis. Another study on Washington, D.C.'s Capital Bikeshare found that the program helped reduce traffic congestion by 2 to 3% in the areas studied. In 2017, studies in Beijing and Shanghai showed that the large increase in dockless bike-sharing led to fewer short car trips under five kilometers. In Guangzhou, the arrival of dockless bikes helped increase the number of people choosing to bike instead of drive.

Bike-sharing systems also aim to reduce air pollution by decreasing car use and indirectly by reducing traffic congestion. A study on D.C.'s Capital Bikeshare estimated that the reduction in congestion saved about $1.28 million annually by lowering CO2 emissions. A separate study in Australia found that an urban resident who cycles 5 kilometers instead of driving during rush hour avoids about 1.5 kilograms of CO2 emissions.

Most large bike-sharing programs have many bike stations and work like public transit, serving tourists, visitors, and local residents. Their main idea is to give free or low-cost access to bikes for short trips, reducing congestion, noise, and pollution. A 2016 study found that Shanghai’s bike-sharing system saved 8,358 tonnes of petrol and reduced carbon dioxide and NOx emissions by 25,240 and 64 tonnes, respectively. The study also said bike-sharing has great potential to lower energy use and emissions as it grows quickly.

Bike-sharing systems also help solve the "last mile" problem of public transit. A 2014 study on YouBike in Taipei found that bike-sharing was popular in residential areas, helping people reach transit stations and their destinations. However, systems that require docking stations at specific locations are criticized for being less convenient than private bikes, which can be used directly from home.

Bike-sharing systems improve health by encouraging cycling, which reduces risks of cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and obesity. In the U.S., bike-sharing trips are estimated to prevent 4.7 premature deaths and save $36 million annually in health costs due to increased physical activity. A European study found that bike-sharing in 12 major cities also improved health and saved millions in healthcare costs. During the Covid-19 pandemic, bike-sharing helped essential workers access jobs, showing its value in making transport systems more resilient during crises.

Some bike-sharing programs, especially older ones that need docking stations, may reduce space for car parking. While some see this as a problem, others view it as a benefit because it helps move away from car dependence.

In some cities, dockless bikes have caused clutter on streets and sidewalks, blocking pedestrians and degrading the urban environment. In Chinese cities, this has created crowded sidewalks and piles of illegally parked bikes. These bikes can also make it harder for people who use wheelchairs or mobility aids and may be dangerous for visually impaired individuals. Because of this, dockless bikes are sometimes called "litter bikes."

Public Health Scotland defines transport poverty as the lack of reliable, affordable, accessible, or safe transport options that allow people to meet daily needs and live well. Transport is linked to inequality in three ways: where people live affects their transport choices, access to opportunities like jobs and healthcare depends on transport, and transport systems themselves determine how accessible services are.

Bike-sharing can reduce transport poverty by offering a new option that may be more available, reliable, affordable, and safe than other forms of transport, especially in areas with poor service. For example, in London, more people from the poorest areas registered for bike-sharing over time.

Some critics say bike-sharing does not reach enough low-income communities. Programs like New York City’s Citi Bike offer discounts to help low-income riders, but many people are unaware of these discounts.

Another criticism is that some bike-sharing systems require smartphones, specific apps, or bank information, which can be barriers for people without access to these tools. Some systems use SMS, phone calls, or chip cards instead.