The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) is a bird in the pelican family, Pelecanidae. It is one of three pelican species found in the Americas and one of two that hunt by diving into water. It lives along the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to the mouth of the Amazon River and along the Pacific Coast from British Columbia to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands. The main group of this species has a white head with a slight yellow color on the top of the head. The back of the neck and neck are dark maroon–brown. White lines appear along the base of the throat pouch on the upper neck, and a pale yellow patch covers the lower front of the neck. Males and females look similar, but females are slightly smaller. During nonbreeding seasons, adults have white heads and necks. The pink skin around their eyes becomes dull and gray. They lack red coloring, and their throat pouch has a greenish-yellow tint, while their legs are greenish-gray to dark gray.
The brown pelican mainly eats fish but sometimes eats amphibians, crustaceans, and the eggs or young of birds. It builds nests in colonies in quiet areas, such as islands, land with sand dunes, shrubs, trees, and mangroves. Females lay two to three oval, chalky white eggs. Both parents share the task of incubating the eggs for 28 to 30 days. Newborn chicks are pink and turn gray or black within 4 to 14 days. It takes about 63 days for chicks to learn to fly. Six to nine weeks after hatching, young pelicans leave the nest and form small groups called pods.
The brown pelican is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It is also the official state bird of Louisiana, appearing on the flag, seal, or coat of arms of each. It is classified as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It was listed as an endangered species in the United States from 1970 to 2009 due to threats from pesticides like dieldrin and DDT in the Southeastern United States and California. In 1972, the use of DDT was banned in Florida and later across the United States. Since then, the brown pelican’s population has grown. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt created the first National Wildlife Refuge, Florida’s Pelican Island, to protect the species from hunters.
Taxonomy
In 1766, Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus first described the brown pelican in the 12th edition of his book Systema Naturae, giving it the scientific name Pelecanus occidentalis. It is part of a group within the Pelecanus genus called the New World clade.
The brown pelican belongs to a group that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and the American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos). The brown and Peruvian pelicans are closely related, while the American white pelican is more distantly related. The Peruvian pelican was once thought to be a subspecies of the brown pelican but is now classified as a separate species due to its much larger size (about twice the weight of the brown pelican), differences in bill color and feathers, and no evidence of breeding between the two species in areas where their ranges overlap. In captivity, the brown pelican has been known to breed with the American white pelican and the great white pelican.
In 1932, James L. Peters divided the Pelecanus genus into three subgroups. He placed the brown pelican (including the Peruvian pelican) in a subgroup called Leptopelicanus, the American white pelican in Cyrtopelicanus, and all others in Pelecanus. This classification was later used by Jean Dorst and Raoul J. Mougin in 1979, Andrew Elliott in 1992, and Joseph B. Nelson in 2005. These scientists suggested that the deepest division among pelicans is between the brown and Peruvian pelicans and the white-plumaged pelicans (such as the American white, Australian, great white, and Dalmatian pelicans). Pink-backed and spot-billed pelicans were also considered closely related. In 1993, Paul Johnsgard proposed that pelicans may have evolved in Africa or South Asia before spreading to the Americas. Later, he supported the idea that the brown and Peruvian pelicans are the most distinct group, with the American white and great white pelicans being closely related. Studies by Sibley and Ahlquist in 1990 using DNA analysis showed that the brown pelican is closely related to a group of white-plumaged pelicans, including the American white pelican, though relationships within this group varied.
New genetic research and modern methods have led to a different understanding of pelican relationships. Unlike the traditional view, which considered the brown and Peruvian pelicans the most distinct due to their appearance and behavior, recent studies show that the American white pelican is closely related to the brown and Peruvian pelicans. Together, these three form a group of pelicans found only in the Americas. Other pelicans, such as the pink-backed, Dalmatian, and spot-billed pelicans, are closely related and form a group that is closely related to the Australian pelican. The great white pelican has no close relatives, though it may be related to the other four, though this connection is not strongly supported by evidence.
Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. Some of these subspecies are genetically different even though they look similar. They differ in size, throat pouch color (and other bare parts) during breeding, certain feather details, and geographic location.
Description
The brown pelican is the smallest of the eight pelican species that still exist today, but it is often one of the larger seabirds in its area. It is 1 to 1.52 meters (3 feet 3 inches to 5 feet 0 inches) long and has a wingspan of 2.03 to 2.28 meters (6 feet 8 inches to 7 feet 6 inches). Adult brown pelicans weigh between 2 and 5 kilograms (4.4 to 11.0 pounds), about half the weight of the Peruvian and American white pelicans found in the Americas. In Florida, the average weight of 47 female brown pelicans was 3.17 kilograms (7.0 pounds), while 56 males averaged 3.7 kilograms (8.2 pounds). Like all pelicans, it has a long bill, measuring 280 to 348 millimeters (11.0 to 13.7 inches) in length.
The nominate subspecies has a white head with a yellowish color on the crown during breeding season. The nape and neck are dark maroon-brown, with white lines along the base of the gular pouch on the upper neck. The lower part of the neck has a pale yellowish patch. Feathers on the center of the nape are longer, forming short, chestnut-colored crests. The back, shoulders, and upper wing feathers are silvery gray with a brownish tint. The leading edge of the wing has a streaky look because the feathers near the edge have dark bases. Feathers above the tail are silvery white in the center, creating pale streaks. The middle, primary, and outer wing feathers are blackish, with white shafts on the primary feathers and silver-gray edges on the secondary feathers. Feathers near the arm (tertials) are silver-gray with a brownish tint. Under the wings, the feathers are grayish-brown with white shafts on the outer primary feathers. Feathers near the body (axillaries) and wing coverings are dark with a silver-gray center. The tail is dark gray, sometimes with a silvery tint. The lower part of the beak is blackish, with a greenish-black gular pouch that helps drain water after catching fish. The chest and belly are dark, and the legs and feet are black. The bill is grayish white with brown and pale carmine spots. The crest is short and pale reddish-brown. The back, rump, and tail have streaks of gray and dark brown, sometimes with a rusty color. Males and females look similar, but females are slightly smaller. The bird is very buoyant because of air pockets inside its body and bones. It moves gracefully in the air but is clumsy on land.
During nonbreeding seasons, adults have white heads and necks. Before breeding, adults have a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes turns gray during nonbreeding. The gular pouch has an olive-green tint, and the legs are gray to blackish-gray. The eyes are pale blue or yellowish white, turning brown during breeding. During courtship, the bill turns pinkish red or pale orange, with a redder tip, and the pouch becomes blackish. Later in the breeding season, the bill turns pale gray on most of the upper jaw and the base of the lower jaw.
Juvenile brown pelicans are grayish-brown overall, with paler underparts. The head, neck, and thighs are dusky-brown, and the belly is dull white. Their plumage resembles adult females, but males have stiffer head feathers. The tail and flight feathers are browner than those of adults. The upper wing feathers are short and brown, often darker on the outermost feathers. Under the wings, the feathers are dull brownish-gray with a whitish band in the center. The eyes are dark brown, and the facial skin is blue. The bill is gray with a yellow or orange tip and a dark gray to pinkish-gray gular pouch. Juveniles reach adult plumage after three years, when neck feathers become paler, upperparts develop stripes, upper wing feathers become grayer, and the belly gains dark spots.
The brown pelican is easily recognized by its nonwhite feathers, smaller size, and habit of diving into water from the air to catch fish, unlike the American white pelican, which hunts cooperatively on the surface. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only pelican species that live exclusively in marine environments.
The brown pelican makes loud, grunting noises, such as a low-pitched "hrrraa-hrra," during displays. Adults occasionally make a low croak, while young birds often squeal.
Distribution and habitat
The brown pelican lives along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts in the Americas. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from New Jersey to the mouth of the Amazon River. Along the Pacific Coast, it is found from British Columbia to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands. After nesting, North American brown pelicans travel in groups farther north along the coasts to return to warmer waters during winter. During the non-breeding season, they are found as far north as Canada. They are rarely seen south of Piura in Peru, where the Peruvian pelican usually lives instead. Occasionally, they visit as far south as Ica during El Niño years. A few brown pelicans have been seen in Arica, northern Chile. They are common along the coasts of California, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, the West Indies, and many Caribbean islands as far south as Guyana. Along the Gulf Coast, they live in Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico.
The brown pelican lives only in marine areas, such as warm estuaries, open ocean waters, and shallow regions near salty bays and beaches. It also lives in mangrove swamps and avoids the open sea, staying within 20 miles of the coast. Some young birds may travel to inland freshwater lakes. Their range sometimes overlaps with the Peruvian pelican along the Pacific coast of South America. They rest on rocks, water, rocky cliffs, piers, jetties, sand beaches, and mudflats.
Most brown pelican populations stay in one area year-round and move from where they are born to where they breed or between breeding sites. Some migration happens, especially in the northern parts of their range, but these movements depend on local conditions and are often unpredictable.
Although they usually live near coasts, brown pelicans sometimes travel inland. They have been seen in many parts of North America’s interior. They also travel along coasts outside their usual range, with sightings as far north as Southeast Alaska and Newfoundland, as far south as central Chile, and as far east in South America as Alagoas. Rare inland sightings, often caused by hurricanes or El Niño events, have been reported in the Colombian Andes. In July 2009, brown pelicans were recorded in the Interandean Valley, where they stayed for at least 161 days. Four sightings were reported far inland in Amazônia Legal, along the Amazon River and its tributaries.
Behavior
The brown pelican is a social bird that lives in groups of both males and females all year. When flying in level flight, brown pelicans move in groups, with their heads tucked against their shoulders and their beaks resting on their folded necks. They often fly in lines or single file, sometimes low over the water. To keep water out of their noses, they have narrower passages inside their nostrils.
The brown pelican eats mostly fish, with menhaden making up about 90% of its diet. Anchovies are especially important for the birds when they are nesting. Other fish they eat regularly include pigfish, pinfish, herring, sheepshead, silversides, mullets, sardines, minnows, and topminnows. Brown pelicans in Southern California depend heavily on Pacific sardines, which can make up to 26% of their diet, making them one of the top three predators of sardines in the area. They also eat crustaceans, such as prawns, and sometimes eat amphibians or the eggs and young of birds like egrets, common murres, and other pelicans.
When flying, brown pelicans can spot schools of fish from as high as 18 to 21 meters (60 to 70 feet) above the ocean. To catch fish, they dive headfirst into the water like kingfishers, sometimes disappearing completely underwater before grabbing their prey. Unlike most other pelicans, brown pelicans and their close relative, the Peruvian pelican, dive to catch food. Other pelicans usually float on the surface to find fish. After diving, brown pelicans shake water from their throat pouch before swallowing their catch. Brown pelicans are sometimes targeted by other birds, such as gulls, skuas, and frigatebirds, which steal their food. They can drink saltwater because their salt glands help them remove salt from their bodies.
Brown pelicans mate with one partner during the breeding season but do not stay with the same partner for life. The nesting season starts in March and April. Males choose nesting sites and perform head movements to attract females. Both males and females perform courtship displays, such as swaying their heads, bowing, turning, and standing upright without support. They may also make low "raaa" calls during these displays.
Once a pair forms a bond, they communicate little. Brown pelicans nest in colonies, which are often in the same place for many years. However, colonies may move due to disturbances, tick infestations, or changes in food supply. They build nests in secluded areas, such as islands, sand dunes, shrubs, trees, and mangroves. Nests are made of reeds, leaves, pebbles, and sticks, lined with feathers and surrounded by a rim of soil and debris. Nests are usually built 0.9 to 3 meters (3 to 10 feet) above the ground. If eggs are lost early in the breeding season, the birds may try to nest again.
A brown pelican’s nest usually contains two to three eggs, or sometimes four. Only one brood is raised each year. The eggs are white and measure about 76 mm (3 inches) in length and 51 mm (2 inches) in width. Both parents share incubation duties, which take 28 to 30 days. The eggs hatch after 28 to 30 days, and the young leave the nest after about 63 days. Newly hatched chicks are pink and weigh about 60 grams (0.13 pounds). Within 4 to 14 days, they turn gray or black. Later, they grow a coat of white, black, or grayish down. The first chick to hatch may have a 100% chance of surviving, the second chick about 60%, and the third chick only 6%.
Parents feed their young by regurgitating partially digested food until the chicks can fly. After about 35 days, the young start walking outside the nest. They begin flying 71 to 88 days after hatching. Adults stay with the young for several months, feeding them until they are independent. During this time, the young are fed about 70 kilograms (150 pounds) of fish. Brown pelicans reach sexual maturity and full adult plumage between three to five years of age. One brown pelican lived over 31 years in captivity.
- Adult with a chick on a nest on Smith Island, Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, USA
- Juvenile in flight, Bodega Head, California
Brown pelican eggs and young are sometimes preyed upon by gulls, bald eagles, iguanas, alligators, vultures, feral cats, dogs, raccoons, crows, and other animals. Predation is less common on islands. Occasionally, bobcats eat young or injured adults. Adult brown pelicans are rarely preyed upon, but bald eagles, South American sea lions, and large sharks have been observed attacking them. In California, adult brown pelicans are sometimes eaten by river otters.
The invasive red imported fire ant can harm hatchlings. Brown pelicans are sensitive to human disturbances near their nests and may abandon them if disturbed. Non-nesting adults are rarely preyed upon. Brown pelicans have several parasitic worms, such as Petagiger, Echinochasmus, and Contracaecum, from eating fish like mullets.
In Florida, brown pelicans may be eaten by invasive snakes, including Burmese pythons, reticulated pythons, and various anacondas.
Relationship with humans
The brown pelican is now a common bird in coastal areas and faces some dangers from fishermen (using fishing lines and hooks) and boaters. In the early 1900s, hunting was a major cause of its deaths. People still hunt adult pelicans for their feathers and collect their eggs in the Caribbean, Latin America, and sometimes in the United States, even though the bird is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.
The brown pelican is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. In 1902, it was added to Louisiana’s official seal, and in 1912, a pelican and its young were included on Louisiana’s flag. Louisiana is sometimes called “The Pelican State,” and the brown pelican is Louisiana’s official state bird. It is also a mascot for Tulane University, appears on its seal, and is on the crest of the University of the West Indies. The NBA’s New Orleans Pelicans team is named after the bird.
In the 1993 movie The Pelican Brief, based on a book by John Grisham, a legal document suggests that two Supreme Court justices were killed to allow oil drilling in a Louisiana marsh that was home to the endangered brown pelican. In the same year, the movie Jurassic Park showed a group of brown pelicans at the end of the film. In the 2003 movie Finding Nemo, a brown pelican (voiced by Geoffrey Rush) was shown as a kind, helpful character named Nigel.
Since 1988, the brown pelican has been listed as “least concern” on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species because it has a large range (more than 20,000 km²) and its population is growing. Scientists estimate there are at least 290,000 brown pelicans in the West Indies and 650,000 globally. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt created Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge to protect the bird from hunters.
Starting in the 1940s, the use of pesticides like DDT caused the brown pelican population to drop sharply because the birds could not reproduce successfully. By the 1960s, the bird was nearly gone along the Gulf Coast, and in southern California, it had almost no young. The bird was listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009. Researchers from the University of Tampa found that DDT made pelican eggshells too thin for the embryos to survive. In 1972, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency banned DDT and limited other pesticides. Since then, chemical levels in pelican eggs have decreased, and their nesting success has improved. The bird became extinct in Louisiana in 1963, but a reintroduction program by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries between 1968 and 1980 helped restore its population in California and Texas. By 1985, the bird had recovered in the eastern U.S. and was removed from the Endangered Species List. Its population has grown by about 68% every decade in North America for 40 years. However, it is still listed as endangered in parts of the Pacific Coast and the southern and central U.S. In 2009, about 12,000 breeding pairs were estimated in Louisiana and Texas, but the Deepwater Horizon oil spill later harmed these populations, and current numbers are unknown.
The brown pelican population has recovered since the 1940s, but food shortages threaten Southern California populations. Forage fish populations, like Pacific sardines, often change naturally, but sardine numbers have dropped since 2014 to about 10% of their highest levels. These declines are linked to changes in ocean temperature, climate, and overfishing. Pacific sardines rely on wind-driven upwelling to bring nutrient-rich water to the surface, but disruptions like El Niño and rising ocean temperatures have reduced this process, harming sardine productivity.
Scientists predict that declining sardine populations could reduce brown pelican numbers by up to 50% if sardine levels drop to their lowest, or by 27% if they fall by half. Between 2014 and 2016, brown pelicans in California experienced repeated breeding failures, including fewer birds arriving at nesting sites, large-scale abandonment, and inability to feed young. These failures are linked to warm ocean conditions that disrupt marine productivity.
Seabirds like the brown pelican are important as indicator species, meaning they help scientists track changes in fish populations, ecosystem health, and climate. Because seabirds are at the top of the food chain, changes in their populations can signal broader environmental issues. Brown pelicans have been used to study the effects of overfishing in Southern California. Sardine populations in the Gulf of California have declined since the 1990s, but monitoring sardines is difficult. Instead, scientists use seabird diets and breeding success to estimate fish populations. When sardines become scarce, brown pelicans switch to other fish, and this shift helps scientists understand how sardine populations are faring. If sardines decline further, commercial fishing may also be affected.