The anti-nuclear movement is a group of people who work to stop the use of nuclear technology. This movement includes groups that take direct action, environmental organizations, and professional groups. These groups support the movement at local, national, or international levels. Major groups in the movement include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Peace Action, Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice, and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service. At first, the movement focused on ending nuclear weapons. However, since the late 1960s, the movement also began to oppose nuclear power. Many groups in the movement oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The creation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often influenced by anti-nuclear ideas.

Scientists and diplomats have discussed nuclear weapons policies since before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became worried about nuclear testing in 1954 after many nuclear tests, including the Castle Bravo disaster. In 1963, many countries agreed to the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere.

Some people began to oppose nuclear power in the early 1960s. Scientists started expressing concerns in the late 1960s. In the early 1970s, large protests happened in southern Germany against the proposed Wyhl Nuclear Power Plant. The project was canceled in 1975, and the success of the protest inspired similar actions in Europe and North America. Nuclear power became a major topic of public protest in the 1970s. While opposition to nuclear power continues, public support for nuclear power has grown again in recent years due to concerns about global warming and interest in clean energy.

A protest against nuclear power happened in July 1977 in Bilbao, Spain, with up to 200,000 people. After the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, 200,000 people protested in New York City. In 1981, Germany held its largest anti-nuclear power protest near Hamburg, where about 100,000 people gathered. The largest protest occurred on June 12, 1982, when one million people in New York City protested against nuclear weapons. In 1983, about 600,000 people protested nuclear weapons in West Berlin. In May 1986, after the Chernobyl disaster, 150,000 to 200,000 people marched in Rome against Italy’s nuclear program. In Australia, unions, peace activists, and environmentalists opposed uranium mining since the 1970s. Large protests against nuclear weapons peaked in the mid-1980s. In the United States, public opposition led to the shutdown of several nuclear power plants, including Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone 1, Rancho Seco, and Maine Yankee.

After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, nuclear power was not discussed much in most countries for many years, and some anti-nuclear groups stopped working together. However, in the 2000s, the nuclear industry improved its public image, new reactor designs were developed, and concerns about climate change brought nuclear power back into energy discussions. The 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident hurt the nuclear industry’s plans and increased opposition to nuclear power worldwide. As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway do not have nuclear power plants and still oppose nuclear power. Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland are stopping the use of nuclear power. Sweden once planned to end nuclear power by 2010, but in 2009, the government allowed existing reactors to continue operating. Globally, the number of working nuclear reactors has not changed much in the last 30 years, and nuclear electricity production has grown since the Fukushima disaster.

History and issues

Nuclear technology has been used for energy and as a tool in war, which has caused disagreements. These disagreements are discussed in debates about nuclear weapons, nuclear power, and uranium mining.

Scientists and diplomats have talked about nuclear weapons policies since before the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became worried about nuclear testing in the Pacific starting in 1954, with some calling it nuclear imperialism and colonialism. In 1961, during the Cold War, about 50,000 women joined the Women Strike for Peace movement and marched in 60 U.S. cities to protest nuclear weapons. In 1963, many countries agreed to the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere.

Some people began opposing nuclear power in the 1960s. By the late 1960s, scientists started raising concerns. In the early 1970s, large protests occurred in Germany against the planned Wyhl Nuclear Power Plant. The project was canceled in 1975, and the anti-nuclear movement in Germany inspired similar protests in Europe and North America. Nuclear power became a major topic of public protest in the 1970s.

From the 1950s, the fossil fuel industry worked against nuclear power, seeing it as a threat to their business. Groups like the American Petroleum Institute and others lobbied against nuclear power in the 2010s. Companies like Shell and Statoil advertised fossil gas as a "perfect partner for renewables." Some environmental groups, like the Sierra Club, received money from fossil fuel companies. In 2011, Greenpeace proposed replacing nuclear power with fossil gas plants, but later changed its position to support energy storage instead. In Germany, a plan called Energiewende aimed to shift to renewable energy but also phased out nuclear power from 2000 to 2022. This led to increased fossil gas use, even though total electricity production stayed nearly the same. Much of this gas came from Russia, leading to projects like Nord Stream 1. After Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022, it was revealed that Russian lobbying influenced Germany’s anti-nuclear and anti-fracking movements.

From an anti-nuclear perspective, global nuclear war poses a threat to civilization. Some scientists say a war with 100 Hiroshima-sized bombs could cause millions of deaths and disrupt the environment, leading to a "nuclear winter" where soot in the atmosphere harms food supplies.

Anti-nuclear weapons groups refer to a 1996 decision by the International Court of Justice, which said using nuclear weapons is generally against international law. Many people, including former military leaders, now support nuclear disarmament. In 2007, a Wall Street Journal article written by former Cold War leaders like Henry Kissinger and George Shultz argued that nuclear weapons no longer make the world safer.

Since the 1970s, some countries have developed second-strike capabilities, like Israel’s Samson Option and Russia’s Dead Hand system, to deter attacks. Many communities were affected by nuclear testing and uranium mining, and some still face problems from radioactive waste.

It is important to note that countries can have nuclear weapons without nuclear power plants, as is likely the case with Israel. Most countries with nuclear power do not have nuclear weapons.

People have different opinions about nuclear power, including its safety, cost, and role in fighting climate change. Nuclear power has one of the lowest death rates per unit of energy compared to other sources, like brown coal. However, some studies say the public sees nuclear power as risky, especially after the 2011 Fukushima disaster. Recently, interest in nuclear power has grown again because of climate change.

Opponents of nuclear power raise several concerns:
– Nuclear accidents: A nuclear plant’s core could overheat and release radiation.
– Nuclear fuel mining: Mining uranium and thorium creates radioactive waste that harms the environment and public health.
– Radioactive waste disposal: Nuclear power produces waste that stays dangerous for a long time.
– Nuclear proliferation: Some reactor designs could be used to make nuclear weapons.
– High cost: Building nuclear plants and cleaning up after accidents is expensive.
– Attacks on nuclear plants: Terrorists or criminals might target nuclear facilities.
– Curtailed civil liberties: Concerns about accidents, weapons, and terrorism might lead to limits on personal freedoms.

Of these, nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal have had the greatest impact on public opinion. Anti-nuclear groups point to the 2011 Fukushima disaster as proof that nuclear power cannot be completely safe.

Anti-nuclear organizations

The anti-nuclear movement is a social effort that works at the local, national, and international levels. Many different types of groups have joined this movement, including:

• direct action groups, such as the Clamshell Alliance and Shad Alliance
• environmental groups, such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace
• consumer protection groups, such as Ralph Nader’s Critical Mass
• professional organizations, such as International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
• political parties, such as the European Free Alliance

Anti-nuclear groups have organized public protests and acts of civil disobedience, such as occupying nuclear plant sites. Other important strategies include lobbying government officials, starting petitions, influencing public policy through voting campaigns, and participating in elections. These groups also use legal actions and take part in legal processes related to nuclear projects.

Anti-nuclear power organizations have formed in every country that has used nuclear power. Protest movements against nuclear power began in the United States and later spread to Europe and other parts of the world. National campaigns against nuclear power started in the late 1970s. Events like the Three Mile Island accident and the Chernobyl disaster helped the anti-nuclear movement gain strength, leading to changes in nuclear energy policies in many countries. In the 1970s and 1980s, the creation of green political parties was often linked to anti-nuclear efforts, such as in Germany and Sweden.

Some anti-nuclear groups have developed strong knowledge about nuclear energy and safety. In 1992, the chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission said that "his agency had been pushed in the right direction on safety issues because of the pleas and protests of nuclear watchdog groups."

Examples of anti-nuclear organizations include:
• European Nuclear Disarmament, which held large meetings in the 1980s with thousands of activists from around the world
• Friends of the Earth International, a network of environmental groups in 77 countries. Since 2014, Friends of the Earth (UK) has focused more on practical goals, such as stopping the building of new nuclear reactors, but no longer campaigns to close existing ones
• Global Zero, an international group of 300 world leaders working to eliminate nuclear weapons
• Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism, a partnership of 83 nations
• Greenpeace International, an environmental group with offices in over 41 countries
• International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
• International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility
• International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, which had members in 41 countries in 1985 and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985
• Nuclear Information and Resource Service
• OPANAL
• Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament, a group of over 700 lawmakers from more than 75 countries
• Pax Christi International, a Catholic group that strongly opposes nuclear weapons
• Ploughshares Fund
• Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
• Socialist International, a group of social democratic political parties
• Sōka Gakkai, a Buddhist group that held anti-nuclear events in Japan and collected 10 million signatures for nuclear weapons abolition
• United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs
• World Disarmament Campaign
• World Information Service on Energy, based in Amsterdam
• World Union for Protection of Life

Lists of national and local anti-nuclear groups can be found in "Anti-nuclear groups in the United States" and "List of anti-nuclear groups."

Activities

In 1971, the town of Wyhl, located on the Rhine River in southern Germany, was chosen as the site for the Wyhl Nuclear Power Plant. Over the next few years, more people began to oppose the plan, and large protests took place. Television showed police removing farmers and their wives from the area, which made nuclear power a major topic of discussion. In 1975, a court canceled the license to build the plant. The events in Wyhl inspired people in other areas to form groups to protest planned nuclear sites.

In 1972, the nuclear disarmament movement continued in the Pacific Ocean, mainly because of French nuclear tests there. Activists in New Zealand sailed boats into the test area to stop the testing. In Australia, thousands of people marched in cities like Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney. Scientists also spoke out, asking for an end to the nuclear tests. In Fiji, activists created a group called Against Testing on Mururoa to oppose the tests.

In the Basque Country, which includes parts of Spain and France, a strong anti-nuclear movement started in 1973. This movement led to most planned nuclear projects being canceled. On July 14, 1977, between 150,000 and 200,000 people gathered in Bilbao, Spain, to protest the Lemoniz Nuclear Power Plant. This was called the largest anti-nuclear demonstration ever.

In France, large protests happened in the early 1970s at nearly every planned nuclear site. Between 1975 and 1977, about 175,000 people protested nuclear power in ten demonstrations. In 1977, a big protest occurred at the Superphénix breeder reactor in Creys-Malville, where some violence happened.

In West Germany, from February 1975 to April 1979, about 280,000 people participated in seven demonstrations at nuclear sites. Some people tried to occupy nuclear sites. After the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, about 120,000 people gathered in Bonn to protest nuclear power.

In the Philippines, many protests happened in the late 1970s and 1980s against the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. The plant was built but never used because of safety issues and problems with corruption.

In 1981, Germany’s largest anti-nuclear protest took place near the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant, west of Hamburg. About 100,000 people met face-to-face with 10,000 police officers.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the nuclear arms race led to more protests about nuclear weapons. Older groups like the Federation of Atomic Scientists became active again, and new groups formed, such as the Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign and Physicians for Social Responsibility. In the UK, on April 1, 1983, about 70,000 people formed a 14-mile-long human chain between three nuclear weapons centers in Berkshire.

In 1982, 100,000 Australians joined anti-nuclear rallies in major cities. These protests grew each year, with 350,000 people participating in 1985. On October 29, 1983, a demonstration in The Hague, Netherlands, had 550,000 people, making it the largest protest in Dutch history.

In May 1986, after the Chernobyl disaster, protests against nuclear power in West Germany often led to clashes with police. Over 400 people were injured during demonstrations against the Wackersdorf reprocessing plant. In Italy, about 150,000 to 200,000 people marched in Rome to protest the nuclear program, and 50,000 marched in Milan. In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C., in the Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament. The march covered 3,700 miles (6,000 km) and took nine months to complete.

In 1989, the anti-nuclear group "Nevada Semipalatinsk" was formed in the former Soviet Union. It organized protests that led to the closure of a nuclear test site in Kazakhstan in 1991.

In September 1992, the World Uranium Hearing took place in Salzburg, Austria. People from around the world, including scientists and indigenous leaders, spoke about the dangers of uranium mining, nuclear power, and radioactive waste.

In the United States, many anti-nuclear protests in the 1970s and 1980s gained national attention. These included protests at Seabrook Station and Diablo Canyon nuclear plants, where thousands were arrested. Large protests also followed the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. In May 1979, 65,000 people, including the governor of California, marched in Washington, D.C., against nuclear power. In New York City, almost 200,000 people protested in 1979. Protests led to the shutdown of several nuclear plants, including Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, and Millstone I.

On June 12, 1982, one million people gathered in New York City’s Central Park to protest nuclear weapons and the Cold War arms race. This was the largest anti-nuclear protest in American history. In 1983, protests against nuclear weapons took place at 50 locations across the U.S. The Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament happened in 1986. Many protests also occurred at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.

On May 1, 2005, 40,000 anti-nuclear and anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. in many years. In the 2000s, protests occurred against new nuclear reactor plans in the U.S. In 2013, four old nuclear reactors were permanently closed. Vermont Yankee was scheduled to close in 2014 after many protests. Protesters in New York State are working to close the Indian Point Energy Center, which is near New York City.

After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, nuclear power was not a major topic in many countries for years, and anti-nuclear groups seemed to win their cause. Some groups stopped meeting. In the 2000s, however, the nuclear industry improved its image, new reactor designs were developed, and concerns about climate change brought nuclear power back into energy discussions. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear

Impact

Beginning in the 1950s, anti-nuclear ideas appeared in popular media, including novels like Fail-Safe and movies such as Godzilla (1954), Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), The China Syndrome (1979), Silkwood (1983), and The Rainbow Warrior (1992).

Dr. Strangelove explored what might happen in the Pentagon if a military general ordered a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. A reviewer described the film as a clever and sharp humorous critique of the military’s mistakes.

The China Syndrome is a 1979 movie about the dangers of nuclear power. It gained more attention when the Three Mile Island nuclear accident happened a few weeks after the film was released. The movie follows a TV reporter, played by Jane Fonda, who sees a near-meltdown at a nuclear plant. The story suggests that cutting costs and greed could lead to dangerous problems in the plant’s design.

Silkwood was inspired by the real-life story of Karen Silkwood, who died in a suspicious car accident while investigating possible wrongdoing at a plutonium plant.

Dark Circle is a 1982 documentary that shows the links between nuclear weapons and nuclear power industries. It highlights the human and environmental costs in the United States. The film notes that while only two bombs were dropped on Japan, hundreds were tested in the U.S. It won awards at the Sundance Film Festival and received an Emmy for documentary work. The film begins with scenes about the Rocky Flats Plant and its pollution of the environment.

Ashes to Honey (2010) is a Japanese documentary about nuclear power and radiation. It is part of a series by director Hitomi Kamanaka, following Hibakusha at the End of the World and Rokkasho Rhapsody.

Nuclear Tipping Point (2010) is a documentary by the Nuclear Threat Initiative. It includes interviews with four former U.S. government officials—Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Sam Nunn, and William Perry—who now support ending nuclear weapons.

Musicians United for Safe Energy (MUSE) was formed in 1979 by Jackson Browne, Graham Nash, Bonnie Raitt, and John Hall after the Three Mile Island accident. They held five concerts at Madison Square Garden in 1979 and organized a large anti-nuclear rally in New York City. An album and film titled No Nukes were released in 1980. In 2007, members of MUSE recorded a music video for the song “For What It’s Worth” by Buffalo Springfield.

Filmmakers Taylor Dunne and Eric Stewart are making a documentary called Off Country about the effects of atomic bomb testing on communities near the White Sands missile range in New Mexico, the Nevada Test Site, and the Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado. They were interviewed in 2017 by Sam Weisberg of Screen Comment.

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists is an online magazine started in 1945 by scientists who worked on the Manhattan Project. It aims to inform the public about nuclear policy and promote control of nuclear weapons. The magazine was created partly because people were interested in atomic energy after World War II. In the 1950s, the Bulletin helped form the Pugwash Conferences, where scientists discuss nuclear issues.

Historian Lawrence S. Wittner said that anti-nuclear activism influenced government policies. Public opinion limited choices for policymakers and helped shape decisions, such as Truman’s support for the Baruch Plan, Eisenhower’s efforts for a nuclear test ban, and Kennedy’s signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

For nuclear power, Forbes magazine noted in 1975 that anti-nuclear groups slowed the growth of nuclear energy. California banned new nuclear reactors in the late 1970s due to waste concerns, and other states also paused nuclear plant construction. Between 1975 and 1980, 63 nuclear plants were canceled in the U.S. Anti-nuclear activism was a factor, but rising costs and overestimates of electricity needs were the main reasons.

The Carter Administration made nuclear weapons proliferation a priority in the late 1970s. President Carter supported international control of nuclear technology but opposed breeder reactors because they could produce plutonium for weapons.

After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, nuclear power was not a major policy topic in most countries. Recently, climate change concerns and nuclear industry efforts have brought nuclear energy back into discussions. However, some countries still reduce their reliance on nuclear power through laws to phase it out.

New Zealand’s 1987 law declared its territory a nuclear-free zone. Nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed ships cannot enter its waters, and radioactive waste dumping or nuclear weapon development is banned. This followed years of activism, including protests against U.S. warships. The law does not ban nuclear power plants or medical treatments using radioactive materials. A 2008 survey showed that 19% of New Zealanders support nuclear power, while 77% prefer wind energy.

On February 26, 1990, South African leader FW de Klerk ordered the end of the country’s nuclear weapons program, which had been a secret until then.

Criticism

Efforts to create political agreements on climate change policies continue. Some environmentalists who support nuclear energy are working to change the traditional negative views that many environmentalists have had about nuclear power. A film called Pandora's Promise (2013), made by filmmaker Rob Stone, shows this change in attitude.

Some environmentalists criticize the anti-nuclear movement for not fully explaining the harm caused by fossil fuels and other non-nuclear energy sources, while also exaggerating the dangers of nuclear energy.

Anti-nuclear activists are sometimes accused of causing unnecessary fear about radiation. In a book titled The War Against the Atom (Basic Books, 1982), Samuel MacCracken of Boston University wrote that in 1982, about 50,000 people died each year because of problems related to non-nuclear power plants, including pollution and accidents during fuel production and transportation. He claimed that if non-nuclear plants were judged the same way as nuclear plants, each non-nuclear power plant in the United States could be linked to about 100 deaths per year.

The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is the main group in the United States that supports companies working in the nuclear energy industry. Most other countries with nuclear energy have their own national groups, while the World Nuclear Association is the only global organization that represents the nuclear industry. To challenge anti-nuclear arguments, this group uses independent studies that compare the costs and benefits of nuclear energy with those of other energy sources. The NEI also supports its own research and references studies done by groups like the World Health Organization, the International Energy Agency, and university researchers.

Critics of the anti-nuclear movement point to studies showing that renewable energy sources often require more money and resources than nuclear power.

Some people who once opposed nuclear energy now say it is needed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. These individuals include James Lovelock, who created the Gaia hypothesis; Patrick Moore, a former leader of Greenpeace; George Monbiot; and Stewart Brand, who created the Whole Earth Catalog. Lovelock argues that nuclear energy and its waste are not as dangerous as some people believe. In a 2008 interview, Moore said he changed his mind about nuclear energy after learning more about climate change. Stewart Brand apologized for his past opposition to nuclear energy in his 2010 book Whole Earth Discipline, saying that environmentalists contributed to increased carbon dioxide emissions by promoting coal and gas instead of nuclear power.

Some anti-nuclear organizations have said their positions may need to be reconsidered.

In April 2007, Dan Becker, who leads the Global Warming program for the Sierra Club, said, "Switching from dirty coal plants to dangerous nuclear power is like giving up smoking cigarettes and taking up crack." James Lovelock criticized this view, saying opposition to nuclear energy is based on fear and misinformation from the media and environmental groups. He added, "I am a Green and I ask my friends in the movement to stop opposing nuclear energy."

George Monbiot, an English writer and environmental activist, once strongly opposed nuclear energy. In March 2011, he changed his stance after seeing how the 2011 Japan tsunami had limited effects on nuclear reactors in the region. He now supports nuclear energy and has criticized the anti-nuclear movement for spreading false information about radiation risks. He specifically criticized Helen Caldicott for making exaggerated claims about the Chernobyl disaster, stating her estimates of deaths were more than 140 times too high.