Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also called mountaintop mining (MTM), is a type of surface mining that takes place on the top or peak of a mountain. To reach coal seams inside the mountain, workers remove the soil and rock, known as overburden, that covers the seams. This method is considered safer than underground mining because the coal is accessed from above the ground instead of digging deep underground. In the United States, this type of mining occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, which are located in the eastern part of the country. Explosives are used to remove up to 400 vertical feet (120 m) of mountain to expose the coal seams below. Extra rock and soil removed during this process are placed into nearby valleys, forming areas called "holler fills" ("hollow fills") or "valley fills."

Overview

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), also called mountaintop mining (MTM), is a type of surface mining that changes the shape of a mountain, hill, or ridge to reach coal that is buried underground.

The MTR process begins by removing the rock and soil that cover the coal seams, which exposes the coal from above. This method is different from traditional underground mining, where miners dig narrow tunnels to access coal while leaving most of the rock and soil undisturbed. After removing the rock and soil, it is either placed back on the mountain to try to recreate its original shape or moved into nearby valleys. When this material is placed into valleys, the valleys are called "valley fills."

In the United States, MTR is most commonly used to extract coal in the Appalachian Mountains. Studies using satellite images show that between 1985 and 2015, 2,900 square kilometers of land were newly mined. Including areas mined before 1985, the total mined land reached 5,900 square kilometers. Research also found that 12 square meters of mined land produce one metric ton of coal. MTR sites are found in many areas, including Ohio to Virginia, but are most common in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky, which are the top two coal-producing states in Appalachia. At current rates, MTR in the U.S. will mine over 5,700 square kilometers by 2010, an area larger than the state of Delaware. This process has destroyed more than 500 mountains and buried 3,200 square kilometers of streams.

MTR has been used since the 1960s. Increased demand for coal in the U.S., caused by the 1973 and 1979 oil crises, led to the widespread use of MTR because it was more cost-effective than traditional underground mining methods. In the 1990s, MTR became more common to extract low-sulfur coal, which burns more cleanly. This was encouraged by changes to the U.S. Clean Air Act that limited pollution from high-sulfur coal.

Process

Before mining starts, trees are removed from the land, and the wood is sold or burned. According to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), the top layer of soil must be saved for later use in restoring the land. However, coal companies often receive permission to use "topsoil substitute" instead if there is not enough natural topsoil on the mountain. After the area is cleared, miners use explosives to remove the rock and soil above the coal, called overburden, to reach the coal layers beneath. The overburden is then moved to previously mined areas on the mountain, which are the most cost-effective places to store it. If the mountain is too steep to store the overburden, it is placed in nearby valleys, creating valley fills or hollow fills. Streams in these valleys are covered by the overburden.

A front-end loader or excavator removes the coal, which is sent to a processing plant. After coal is removed, the overburden from the next mining area is placed into the empty pit. Once the overburden is stacked and the land is graded, topsoil or a substitute is added. Grass seeds are then spread with fertilizer and mulch made from recycled newspaper. If the landowner wants the area to become a forest or wildlife habitat, trees are planted. If other uses are requested, such as pasture or development, the land is restored accordingly.

Coal is often found in multiple layers underground, so miners can repeat the blasting process to mine multiple seams on the same mountain, digging deeper each time.

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 was created to regulate surface mining and restore mined land. While laws require land to be restored after mining, reclamation efforts have focused on stabilizing rock and preventing erosion rather than restoring forests. The act also includes the Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML), which helps reclaim old mines. However, opinions differ about how effective the fund is due to challenges in identifying all affected areas. The fund also supports job creation and development by reclaiming land for use.

In 2022, the Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Enforcement (OSMRE), along with states and tribes, issued over 5,400 permits for reclamation and active mining sites. These sites cover 2.7 million acres and are regulated through inspections, permits, and bonding requirements. In the same year, 91.3% of inspected sites had no off-site effects.

Historically, reforested mining areas have struggled with poor tree growth and survival. Grasslands are often used instead of forests. The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI), started in 2004, promotes planting hardwood trees on reclaimed land using the Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA). The FRA includes five steps: (1) creating deeper soil for better root growth, (2) using non-compacted topsoil, (3) planning plant cover to support trees, (4) planting tree species that help wildlife and provide useful products, and (5) using proper planting methods. ARRI also trains coal industry workers to use effective reclamation practices.

Valley fill sites often have high sulfur levels from weathered debris, which can create acid mine drainage (AMD). AMD increases harmful chemical levels in nearby streams, such as sulfate, iron, and aluminum. Common treatments include sealing mine openings, redirecting water, adding lime, using limestone channels, and building treatment ponds or wetlands.

Restoration efforts vary in cost, but models that predict ecosystem responses can improve efficiency. Biotic indicators, such as mayflies, are useful for monitoring water quality. Mayflies are sensitive to pollution and are common in Appalachian streams. Valley fills and AMD harm mayfly populations, making them valuable for tracking restoration progress. By using models focused on mayflies and other species, restoration groups can better plan and assess efforts to improve ecosystems.

Economics

As of 2023, about 16% of electricity generated in the United States came from coal, a decrease from around one third in 2015. Mountaintop removal (MTR) made up less than 5% of U.S. coal production in 2001. In some areas, such as West Virginia, the percentage was higher. For example, in 2006, MTR provided 30% of the coal mined in West Virginia. As of 2023, only West Virginia was noted as using MTR to produce coal. This method produced nearly 1,800 tons of coal, which made up 0.5% of total U.S. coal production.

Historically, the main way coal was mined in the United States was through underground mining, which requires a lot of labor. In MTR, explosives and large machines are used to extract more than two and a half times as much coal per worker per hour compared to traditional underground mining. This reduces the number of workers needed. In Kentucky, for example, the number of coal workers dropped by over 60% between 1979 and 2006 (from 47,190 to 17,959 workers). The coal industry as a whole lost about 10,000 jobs between 1990 and 1997 as MTR and other mechanized mining methods became more common. The industry claims that surface mining methods, like MTR, are safer for miners than underground mining.

Supporters say that in certain areas, MTR and similar surface mining methods are the only way to access thin coal seams that traditional underground mining cannot reach. MTR is sometimes the most cost-effective way to extract coal. However, a study comparing wind farms to surface mining on Coal River Mountain, West Virginia, found that surface mining costs would exceed the income it would generate. Surface mining activity is also limited, as the study noted that such mines would only operate for 17 years, while wind farms can function indefinitely. The study suggested that wind farms would provide greater long-term benefits to Raleigh County, West Virginia.

Several studies from 2000 to 2005 examined the effects of restricting MTR. Research by Mark L. Burton, Michael J. Hicks, and Cal Kent found that lower levels of mining led to significant state tax losses. These studies did not consider potential environmental costs, which the researchers acknowledged might be greater than the economic benefits. After mining operations end, MTR sites are usually restored. However, reclaimed soil often has higher density, less organic matter, lower water absorption, and fewer nutrients compared to natural soil.

Reclamation projects that involve local communities can help improve the economy. Previously mined land can be turned into sustainable farmland or used for solar farms. These efforts can create jobs and support other economic opportunities, helping to diversify and strengthen local economies.

Legislation in the United States

In the United States, MTR is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). Most coal mining sites must be restored to their original shape and use. However, regulatory agencies can allow exceptions for MTR. In such cases, SMCRA requires that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining."

In 2012, Appalachian residents worked to create the ACHE Act, or the Appalachian Communities Health Emergency Act. This law asked Congress to pause MTR until health studies could be completed.

The Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML) was introduced in the SMCRA. This act provides money to restore mines that were left unclaimed before the law was created.

The Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Enforcement (OSMRE), started in 1977, lets states create their own rules that follow SMCRA. When states' plans are approved by OSMRE, they can issue and enforce mining permits.

In 2001, the George W. Bush administration appealed a court decision. The ruling was about the definition of "fill material" that could be placed in waterways. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Army Corps of Engineers later changed a rule to include mining debris in the definition of fill material. This overturned the earlier ruling.

In 2002, a West Virginia judge ruled against dumping waste material in streams in Appalachia. The judge said a loophole in the Bush administration's mining rules was an "obvious perversity" of the Clean Water Act. Because of this ruling, mining companies found dumping waste into waterways would no longer be eligible to get permits from the Army Corps of Engineers.

In 2007, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that using settling ponds to remove mining waste from streams violates the Clean Water Act. The judge also said the Army Corps of Engineers has no authority to issue permits for discharging pollutants into in-stream settling ponds, which are often built near valley fills.

Permits are required to deposit valley fill into streams. Four times, federal courts ruled that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers broke the Clean Water Act by issuing such permits. Massey Energy Company appealed a 2007 ruling but was allowed to continue mining while the appeal was pending because "most of the substantial harm has already occurred," according to the judge.

On December 2, 2008, the Bush Administration changed a rule to remove the Stream Buffer Zone protection from SMCRA. This allowed coal companies to place mining waste directly into headwater waterways.

On January 15, 2008, the Center for Biological Diversity asked the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to end a policy that skips detailed reviews of new mining permits under the Endangered Species Act. Under current rules, if a mining operation follows federal surface mining law, the FWS assumes it does not harm endangered species or their habitats. Since 1996, this policy has exempted many strip mines from reviews of their impact on endangered species. The FWS's 1996 Biological Opinion said case-by-case reviews were unnecessary. As a result, the Interior's Office of Surface Mining and state regulators require mining companies to hire approved contractors to check for endangered species. These surveys must be approved by state and federal biologists, who give informal advice on how to reduce harm to species. Agencies can request formal consultations but rarely do.

On May 25, 2008, North Carolina State Representative Pricey Harrison introduced a bill to ban using mountaintop removal coal in power plants in North Carolina. This would have been the first law of its kind in the United States, but the bill failed.

On June 11, 2009, officials from the EPA, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of the Interior signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) and an Interagency Action Plan (IAP). These documents outlined steps to reduce the environmental harm caused by mountaintop mining. The plan included short- and long-term actions to improve coordination and transparency in decisions.

Alpha Natural Resources, Inc., the top metallurgical coal supplier in the U.S., was found to have exceeded permits 6,289 times in 2014. Through a settlement with the EPA, the company paid a $27.5 million fine. Alpha and its subsidiaries also agreed to spend $200 million to improve wastewater treatment systems in several Appalachian states to reduce pollution.

The Clean Water Rule, a 2015 regulation by the EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers, "more precisely defines waters protected under the Clean Water Act." The Energy Information Administration (EIA) said the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), EPA, and the Army are working together to prepare an environmental impact statement analyzing the effects of coal surface mining in Appalachia.

Efforts have been made to revise the 1977 stream buffer rule, which requires certain conditions to be met if mining occurs within 100 feet of a stream. In July 2015, the Obama Administration drafted a "Stream Protection Rule." This draft added more protections for downstream waters but weakened current buffer requirements.

In 2016, a settlement between the EPA, the Department of Justice (DOJ), and surface mining companies required upgrades to reduce polluted wastewater from Appalachian sites.

In February 2017, President Donald Trump removed restrictions on dumping mining waste into streams and waterways, repealing protections from the Obama Administration.

On April 9, 2019, the House Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources held a hearing on the health and environmental impacts of mountaintop removal mining. This hearing discussed the H.R. 2050 bill, which would pause MTR permits until health studies are completed by the Department of Health and Human Services.

In June 2024, the Biden-Harris Administration approved $725 million for the Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AML) to help reclaim land in 22 states and the Navajo Nation.

Despite many rules, coal companies have significant influence in the mining industry. The SMCRA was created in response to concerns that states might relax regulations to increase competitiveness. The law also struggles with

Environmental impacts

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) harms the environment. Activities like explosions and digging release many harmful substances into the air, water, and soil. These pollutants, such as tiny particles, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide, can hurt human health and damage ecosystems. Air pollution can lead to problems like acidification of water and soil, harmful chemicals building up in food chains, and excessive growth of plants in water (eutrophication). MTR operations have buried over 2,000 kilometers of streams and headwater areas in the Appalachian region. This reduces the amount of fresh water available to support plant and animal life. MTR also increases the risk of harmful chemicals seeping into the environment. Chemicals like calcium, magnesium, and sulfate can change water chemistry by raising pH levels, salinity, and electrical conductivity. High levels of phosphorus and nitrogen can cause pollution. Selenium, a toxic chemical, can build up in animals and harm them.

Activities like cutting down trees, moving soil and rock, and using heavy machines can reduce how well soil absorbs water, harm land habitats, and lower the amount of carbon stored in the ground. This can increase water runoff and soil erosion. These changes can permanently damage water systems, soil chemistry, and the health of ecosystems.

A 2010 study in the journal Science reviewed scientific research and water quality data. It found that MTR causes serious environmental harm that cannot be fully fixed by efforts to reduce damage. For example, large areas of forests destroyed by MTR support endangered species and some of the richest biodiversity in North America. Burial of headwater streams by valley fills (areas of land filled with mining waste) permanently destroys ecosystems that are important for natural processes.

In West Virginia, higher levels of metals, pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved minerals in water are linked to the amount of mining. Loss of variety in stream life is also connected to mining activity. A 2005 report by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that streams near valley fills have more minerals in the water and fewer types of aquatic life. These streams also have high selenium levels, which can build up in animals and cause harm, such as reproductive issues, physical deformities, or death. These effects have been found in reservoirs downstream from mining areas. Higher pH levels in mining-affected streams can make some metals, like selenium and iron, less soluble, changing the chemical makeup of the water.

The report estimated that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 and 2001. In 2010, the EPA Science Advisory Board reviewed studies on water quality impacts from valley fills and agreed that these areas increase water conductivity, harming aquatic life. A 2012 study found higher levels of sulfate, bicarbonate, calcium, and magnesium in water downstream from mining sites. These chemicals increase water conductivity. Measured conductivity levels ranged from 159 to 2720 μS/cm near mining areas, compared to 30 to 260 μS/cm in areas not affected by mining.

Headwater streams are important because they help control water quality in larger rivers and streams. They store floodwater, hold nutrients, and reduce sediment buildup. Valley fill practices reduce these functions, harming nearby rivers and watersheds. Factors that disrupt stream flow include cutting down trees, forming underground water sources (aquifers), compacting fill material, and losing headwater streams. Removing trees for mining reduces how much water is released into the air, increasing the amount of water flowing out of the area. Changes in water flow can also happen because aquifers from valley fills store water from groundwater, rain, and runoff. Compacted fill material from mining equipment increases surface runoff. Losing headwater streams reduces the connection between surface water and groundwater.

Aquatic ecosystems and water resources are harmed by pollution and changes to the landscape caused by MTR and valley fills. Destroying mountaintops leads to loss of forests and broken forest areas. Losing forests reduces good soil for replanting, lowers carbon storage, and harms biodiversity.

The Appalachian region has high biodiversity and steep hills. Differences in elevation create varied forest ecosystems. Losing forests and breaking them into smaller areas changes the land environment. This increases edge forests (forests near the edges of larger forests) and reduces interior forests. Edge forests are warmer, drier, and more likely to have invasive plants. This harms biodiversity because many species depend on old-growth forests. For example, fewer salamanders are found in reclaimed areas because these areas lack the moist conditions found in old-growth forests. Changes on land have turned natural forests, which store carbon, into sources of carbon emissions.

Soil after mining is often dense, has poor water absorption, and lacks nutrients and organic matter. Reclaimed areas usually cannot support the forests that were there before because the soil is too poor. Mining areas are often turned into grasslands or shrublands with invasive plants. Fast-growing, non-native plants like Lespedeza cuneata are planted to quickly cover the land but compete with tree seedlings. Trees struggle to grow roots in compacted soil. In Kentucky, reintroduced elk eat tree seedlings, making it harder for forests to return. The new ecosystem has less diversity and productivity than the original forest. A 2017 study found that animals that can live in many types of habitats are found in all areas, but animals that need specific forest habitats are only found in forests. Reclaimed grasslands and shrublands are not suitable for these animals, harming biodiversity in an area with many unique species.

Streams are sometimes restored by reshaping mining land, rebuilding drainage systems, or creating new stream channels to look like the ones buried by mining. However, these efforts focus on rebuilding the structure, not the natural functions of streams. Evidence shows that these methods can reduce biodiversity over time. Studies comparing natural and built streams find that built streams have higher levels of minerals, temperature, and lower levels of organic matter and leaf litter.

Health impacts

Studies from the CDC show that areas near mountaintop removal (MTR) mining have higher death rates from cancer, respiratory diseases, and long-term heart problems compared to the rest of the United States. Between 1999 and 2007, death rates in these areas were 20% to 40% higher than the national average. Research also suggests that people living near MTR sites may face health risks from contact with polluted water or breathing in harmful dust and toxins. These risks are linked to higher rates of hospital visits for lung diseases and high blood pressure in areas with coal mining. Studies also found higher rates of death, lung cancer, and long-term illnesses like heart, lung, and kidney disease in these regions. A 2011 study showed that counties near MTR sites had higher rates of birth defects, including problems with the heart and lungs, bones, nervous system, stomach, and urinary system. These issues became more severe over time, suggesting that pollution from MTR may build up over years. Another 2011 study found that people living near MTR sites were twice as likely to have cancer compared to those in non-mining areas, even after considering factors like age, smoking, and family history. A 2017 study showed that people in Kentucky mining communities were 37% more likely to be diagnosed with depression and 41% more likely to have substance abuse problems compared to people in non-mining areas.

Research shows that MTR increases exposure to tiny particles, harmful chemicals, and elements from the earth’s surface. In addition to work-related exposure, studies found that people in mining areas have higher levels of these pollutants in their lungs. Samples from homes near MTR sites showed higher levels of silica, aluminum, and other harmful substances. A study comparing people in MTR and non-MTR areas found that those near MTR sites reported more breathing problems. Many studies conclude that living near MTR sites can harm lung health. Experiments on mice also showed that dust from MTR sites may harm blood vessels, which could contribute to heart disease in the area.

MTR harms both surface water and groundwater quality. Water in MTR areas has higher levels of harmful substances like arsenic, selenium, lead, and other chemicals from mining waste. Wastewater from coal processing contains harmful materials such as surfactants, coal dust, and toxic chemicals. This wastewater is often stored underground, where it can pollute other water sources. Groundwater samples from homes in mining areas showed levels of arsenic, lead, and other harmful substances that exceed safe drinking water limits. A study found that water treatment plants in MTR regions had more violations of drinking water safety rules compared to areas without mining. Another study showed that unhealthy streams in West Virginia are linked to higher cancer death rates. However, more research is needed to fully understand how MTR affects water quality and human health. Because MTR harms water quality, protecting drinking water sources requires more attention and action.

Environmental justice

The Appalachian region has had a history of poverty. Between 2013 and 2017, the percentage of people living in poverty in Appalachia ranged from 6.5% to 41.0%. The average poverty rate in this region is 16.3%, which is higher than the national average of 14.6%. Poverty rates are connected to areas where mountaintop mining happens. In places where mountaintop mining occurs, poverty rates are much higher than in areas without mining. In 2007, adult poverty rates in these mining areas were 10.1 percentage points higher than in non-mining areas in Appalachia. Similar patterns are seen in mortality rates. Economic and health problems are more common in areas where mountaintop mining takes place.

The Alliance for Appalachia was created in 2006. Its goal is to help make Appalachia a healthier place by supporting communities and giving them more power. Today, the Alliance includes fifteen organizations that work directly with communities in Appalachia and take part in local and national campaigns. This group has helped push for the RECLAIM Act.

Appalachian ironweed has become a symbol for women in the Appalachian region. It shows their work to protect the environment and their strength in dealing with the effects of mountaintop mining while continuing to fight for change. Activists like Maria Gunnoe and Maria Lambert have worked to protect their families and land from the harmful effects of mountaintop mining. Both women organized efforts to teach their communities about the health risks of mountaintop mining, especially the importance of clean drinking water. Gunnoe supported the federal Clean Water Protection Act and continues to work for renewable energy in the region. Lambert started the Prenter Water Fund, which provides clean water to communities affected by polluted water from mountaintop mining.

Focus is placed on movements in Appalachia and communities fighting for change. Reports on coal mining by author Jeff Biggers, collected from many news sources like the Huffington Post, Al Jazeera America, The Guardian, Washington Post, Salon, The Nation, Public Radio International, Alternet, EcoWatch, CNN, MSNBC, Midwest Energy News, Yes Magazine, and Common Dreams from 2001 to 2021. In 2021, Biggers wrote on Salon.com: "We still blow up mountains to mine coal: Time to end the war on Appalachia."

Other regions with mountaintop mining

• Laciana Valley, Spain (1994–2014)
• Elk River Valley, British Columbia, Canada (1970–present)

The Elk River Valley has five mountaintop removal coal mines. These mines are located at or near the top of a series of mountains in the Canadian Rockies. Four of the five mines are still active, and one is closed now. The coal mines are owned by Elk Valley Resources, which is owned by Glencore. Glencore bought 77% of EVR from Teck in 2024. The other 23% is owned by Nippon Steel (20%) and POSCO (3%).

Art, entertainment, and media

• The Guardian (2015): PNC Bank and other large financial companies cut back on financial support for MTR companies. This happened because of pressure from environmental groups, bank customers, and university students.
• Kentucky Lantern (2023): Kentuckians For The Commonwealth (KFTC), a group that works to influence laws, asked the SMCRA to study how MTR might have made a July 2022 flood worse. The group said the floodwaters were six times higher than normal levels.
• The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reported in 2015 that MTR had decreased by 62% since 2008. The EIA said less demand for coal, more use of coal alternatives, and environmental rules helped cause this decrease.

• Videographer Trip Jennings shows communities affected by MTR and talks about the need to improve local economies to create a better future. Communities at Risk (2015).
• The Smithsonian Channel shows an aerial view of how large MTR operations look from the air. The Land of Mountaintop Removal (2013).

• Chet Pancake made a documentary called Black Diamonds: Mountaintop Removal & The Fight for Coalfield Justice (2006), which was shown at the Museum of Modern Art. The film includes Julia Bonds, who won the 2003 Goldman Environmental Prize.
• The documentary Mountain Top Removal (2007) focuses on activists, coal field residents, and coal industry workers. It won the Reel Current award in 2008 and was presented by Al Gore at the Nashville Film Festival.
• The film Burning the Future: Coal in America (2008) won the International Documentary Association’s 2008 Pare Lorentz award for Best Documentary.
• The film The Last Mountain (2011) shows the effects of MTR on land and people near coal mining areas. It includes Maria Gunnoe, the 2009 Goldman Environmental Prize winner, and others who speak out against mining and suggest wind power as a solution.
• The film Goodbye Gauley Mountain: An Ecosexual Love Story (2013), by Beth Stephens and Annie Sprinkle, brings attention to MTR in West Virginia by combining environmental activism, art, and LGBTQ advocacy. Stephens hopes the film will inspire people not usually involved in environmental issues, especially LGBTQ communities.

• In April 2005, a group of Kentucky writers visited areas damaged by MTR. Their work, Missing Mountains: We went to the mountaintop, but it wasn’t there (2005), includes poems, essays, and photos edited by Kristin Johannesen, Bobbie Ann Mason, and Mary Ann Taylor-Hall.
• Dr. Shirley Stewart Burns, a West Virginia native, wrote Bringing Down The Mountains (2007), the first academic book on MTR. It is based on her 2005 Ph.D. dissertation.
• Burns also co-edited Coal Country (2009), a book that pairs with the film of the same name.
• Silas House and Jason Howard wrote Something's Rising: Appalachians Fighting Mountaintop Removal (2009).
• Jason Howard edited We All Live Downstream: Writings about Mountaintop Removal (2009).
• Dr. Rebecca Scott, a West Virginian, studied how identity and natural resource use are connected in central Appalachia in her book Removing Mountains (2010).
• Chris Hedges and Joe Sacco wrote Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt (2012), which includes a chapter about MTR in Welch, West Virginia.
• Cultural historian Jeff Biggers wrote The United States of Appalachia (2006), which discusses the cultural and human costs of MTR.

Additionally, many personal stories from coalfield residents have been written, including:
• Lost Mountain: A Year in the Vanishing Wilderness—Radical Strip Mining and the Devastation of Appalachia (2006) by Erik Reese.
• Moving Mountains: How One Woman and Her Community Won Justice from Big Coal (2007) by Penny Loeb.

• MTR is a major part of Jonathan Franzen’s novel Freedom (2010), where a character helps secure land for mining with the promise it will be restored as a nature reserve.
• Same Sun Here by Silas House and Neela Vaswani is a middle-grade novel that discusses MTR and takes place during the 2008–2009 school year.
• In John Grisham’s novel Gray Mountain (2014), a character moves to an Appalachian town and faces the challenges of coal mining.
• Transgender author Carter Sickels mentions MTR in his book The Evening Hour (2012), using it as a comparison to the opioid crisis in Appalachia.

• Caroline Herring’s song “Black Mountain Lullaby” (2012) tells the story of Jeremy Davidson, a 3-year-old who died in a MTR accident in 2004. Herring was inspired by an article written by Silas House in the New York Times.
• Lissie’s song “Mountaintop Removal” is a protest song on her album Back to Forever.
• Liam Wilson of The Dillinger Escape Plan wore a shirt saying “stop mtm/vf” during a performance on Late Night with Conan O’Brien.
• Jean Ritchie’s song “Black Waters” describes the dangers of coal mining in Appalachia.
• John Prine’s song “Paradise” talks about the effects of strip mining in Kentucky’s Green River area.
• In 2010, David Rovics wrote and performed a song titled “Hills of Tennessee,” which discusses MTR near Nashville.
• In 2010, a concert series called “Music Saves Mountains” raised money and awareness for MTR, featuring artists like Ben Sollee, Big Kenny, Buddy Miller, Dave Matthews, Emmylou Harris, and others.

Cited texts

Copeland, C. (2004). "Mountaintop removal mining." In Humphries, M. (ed.). U.S. Coal: A Primer on the Major Issues. Nova Publishers. ISBN 1-59454-047-0.