The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a process led by the United Nations to help countries work together to reduce dangerous climate change. It is an agreement among nations to stop harmful human actions that affect the Earth’s climate. The main goal is to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The agreement includes the idea that all countries share responsibility for solving climate change, but developed countries have more responsibility because they have historically released more greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC was signed by 154 countries in 1992 during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also called the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro. The treaty became active on March 21, 1994. The UNFCCC is also the name of the organization that supports the agreement, which has offices in Bonn, Germany.

The main goal of the UNFCCC is described in Article 2. It aims to keep greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere at a point that prevents harmful human actions from disrupting the climate. The treaty supports scientific research about the climate to help guide meetings and agreements. This research helps ecosystems adapt to climate change, protects food production, and allows economic growth to continue in a way that is sustainable. Today, the UNFCCC focuses on carrying out the Paris Agreement, which started in 2016. The Paris Agreement seeks to limit global temperature increases to below 2°C (3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels, with a goal of keeping it below 1.5°C (2.7°F). The Paris Agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol, which was signed in 1997 and lasted from 2005 to 2020.

By 2022, the UNFCCC had 198 member countries. The highest decision-making group, called the Conference of the Parties (COP), meets every year. Other meetings happen throughout the year at regional and technical levels. The Paris Agreement requires a review of progress every five years. The first review took place at COP28 in the United Arab Emirates in 2023.

The treaty divides countries into three groups: developed countries, developed countries with special financial responsibilities, and developing countries. Developed countries are called Annex I countries. There were originally 38 of them. These countries must create national plans and take steps to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. They must also report on efforts to return to their 1990 greenhouse gas levels individually or together.

Some countries are not following their promises under the UNFCCC, which has led to criticism about the agreement’s effectiveness in reducing emissions. The UNFCCC does not use voting to make decisions; instead, all decisions must be agreed upon by all parties, giving each country a veto. The success of the Paris Agreement in meeting its climate goals, especially the goal of limiting temperature rise to 1.5°C, is still being debated.

A recent study suggests that combining in-person meetings with online discussions could improve fairness and effectiveness in climate governance under the UNFCCC.

Development

The IPCC's First Assessment Report was published in 1990. It provided a summary of climate change science and the scientific agreement at that time. The report explained uncertainties and showed evidence of rising global temperatures. The authors stated they were certain that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are increasing because of human activities. This increase is causing the Earth's surface to warm more. The report led to the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The text of the UNFCCC was written during a meeting of an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in New York from April 30 to May 9, 1992. The convention was officially adopted on May 9, 1992, and opened for signing on June 4, 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, also known as the Earth Summit. On June 12, 1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC. Once ratified, signatory governments committed to reducing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere to prevent harmful human-caused changes to Earth's climate system. This goal would require significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (see the later section, "Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations"). Since 1995, countries that joined the convention have met annually in Conferences of the Parties (COPs) to review progress on climate change.

Article 3(1) of the convention states that countries should work to protect the climate system based on "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities." It also says that developed countries should take the lead in addressing climate change. Under Article 4, all countries agree to take general steps to address climate change, such as reducing emissions and preparing for climate impacts. Article 4(7) explains that the goal for countries listed in Annex I of the convention was to keep their greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide and other human-caused gases not covered by the Montreal Protocol) at 1990 levels by the year 2000.

The main goal of the UNFCCC is described in Article 2: "stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents harmful human-caused changes to the climate system." This goal must be achieved within a time period that allows ecosystems to adapt naturally, ensures food production is not threatened, and supports sustainable economic development.

Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE) is a term introduced by the UNFCCC in 2015 to replace the name "Article 6." It refers to the original Article 6 of the convention (1992), which focuses on six key areas: education, training, public awareness, public participation, access to information, and international cooperation on these issues. Successfully addressing all six areas is considered essential for people to understand and take part in solving climate change challenges. ACE encourages governments to create educational programs, train professionals, improve access to information, and involve the public in climate action. It also urges countries to work together by sharing knowledge and strengthening national institutions. These efforts are guided by specific goals aimed at effectively implementing climate adaptation and mitigation actions and achieving the UNFCCC's ultimate objective.

Key agreements and protocols

The Kyoto Protocol (Japanese: 京都議定書, Hepburn: Kyōto Giteisho) was an international agreement that expanded the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This agreement required countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the idea that global warming is happening and that human-made carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions are causing it. The Kyoto Protocol was created in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, and became active on February 16, 2005. In 2020, 192 countries were part of the agreement (Canada left the agreement in December 2012).

The Kyoto Protocol aimed to reduce global warming by lowering greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere to a point that would avoid serious harm to the climate system. The agreement focused on seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃). Nitrogen trifluoride was added during the Doha Round for the second compliance period.

The Kyoto Protocol was based on the idea that countries have different abilities to fight climate change because of their economic development. It required developed countries to reduce emissions first, as they are historically responsible for most greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol began in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated met their goals. However, nine countries used flexibility mechanisms, such as funding emission reductions in other countries, because their emissions slightly exceeded their targets. The 2008 financial crisis also reduced emissions. The largest reductions were seen in former Eastern Bloc countries, as the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to lower emissions. Despite these efforts, global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.

The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on climate change signed in 2016. It covers climate change solutions, adaptation, and financial support. The agreement was created by 196 countries during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference near Paris, France. As of January 2026, 194 members of the UNFCCC are part of the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC members that have not ratified the agreement, Iran is the only major emitter. The United States, the second-largest emitter, left the agreement in 2020, rejoined in 2021, and left again in 2026.

The Paris Agreement has a long-term goal to keep global surface temperature increases below 2°C (3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels. It also prefers a limit of 1.5°C (2.7°F). These limits are based on average global temperature measurements over many years.

In addition to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, countries have made further commitments during UNFCCC Conferences of the Parties. These include the Bali Action Plan (2007), the Copenhagen Accord (2009), the Cancún agreements (2010), and the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (2012).

The Bali Action Plan, created in 2007, required developed countries to set specific emission reduction goals that are comparable, considering their different situations. Developing countries agreed to take actions to reduce emissions in a way that supports sustainable development, with help from technology, funding, and training. These actions must be measurable, reportable, and verifiable.

The Copenhagen Accord, created in 2009, aimed to limit global warming to below 2.0°C (3.6°F). The agreement did not define the baseline for these targets (e.g., compared to pre-industrial or 1990 temperatures). According to the UNFCCC, these targets are based on pre-industrial temperatures.

114 countries agreed to the Copenhagen Accord. The UNFCCC noted that some countries explained their understanding of the Accord before agreeing to it. The Accord was not officially adopted by the Conference of the Parties, but the COP "took note" of it.

As part of the Accord, 17 developed countries and the EU-27 submitted emission reduction goals, as did 45 developing countries. Some developing countries mentioned the need for international support in their plans.

The Cancún agreements required both developed and developing countries to submit emission reduction plans to the UNFCCC. These plans were combined with those from the Bali Action Plan.

At the 2021 UNFCCC meeting, the "UN Race-to-Zero Emissions Breakthroughs" campaign was launched. The goal is to change 20 economic sectors to achieve zero greenhouse gas emissions. At least 20% of each sector must take action, and 10 sectors should be transformed before COP 26 in Glasgow. Organizers say 20% is a key point where change becomes unstoppable.

At Berlin, Cancún, and Durban, the needs of developing countries were repeated. For example, the Durban Platform confirmed that:

The UN Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13) includes a target related to the UNFCCC and explains how the Green Climate Fund should be used. One of SDG 13’s five goals, to be achieved by 2030, states: "Help developed countries raise $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to meet the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful climate actions and transparency. Fully operate the Green Climate Fund as soon as possible." This goal has one indicator: "Amounts provided and mobilized in U.S. dollars per year related to the $100 billion goal through 2025."

The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a financial tool for climate change created under the UNFCCC. It helps developing countries adapt to and reduce climate change. The GCF is part of the UNFCCC’s financial system and is based in Incheon, South Korea. It is managed by a 24-member Board and supported by a Secretariat.

Mafalda Duarte, a Portuguese economist, is the GCF’s Executive Director.

The GCF supports projects in developing countries through specific funding areas. It is meant to be the main tool for raising climate finance under the UNFCCC. There are four smaller multilateral climate funds, but the GCF is the largest.

Secretariat and offices

"UNFCCC" is also the name of the Secretariat, which helps run the convention. Its offices are located on the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany. Before, the offices were in Haus Carstanjen and a building called Langer Eugen on the UN Campus.

The Secretariat was created under Article 8 of the convention and is led by the Executive Secretary. With help from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Secretariat works to reach agreement through meetings and discussions about strategies. Since the UNFCCC treaty was signed, Conferences of the Parties (COPs) have met to discuss how to achieve the treaty's goals.

From 2010 to 2016, Christiana Figueres led the Secretariat. Then, Patricia Espinosa became Executive Secretary on May 18, 2016, after being chosen by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. She started her role on July 18, 2016, and left on July 16, 2022. During this time, UN Under Secretary General Ibrahim Thiaw acted as Executive Secretary. On August 15, 2022, Secretary-General António Guterres chose Simon Stiell, a former Grenadian climate minister, to be the new Executive Secretary, replacing Espinosa.

Current and former executive secretaries are:

Processes

The reports from the IPCC are very important for the yearly climate talks organized by the UNFCCC. For example, the UNFCCC asked the IPCC to create a report about global warming of 1.5 °C. The IPCC later released the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) in 2018. The report explained that it was possible to keep warming below 1.5 °C during the 21st century. However, this would require major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and quick, widespread changes in all areas of society. The report also showed that warming of 2 °C would cause much worse effects than 1.5 °C. In other words, even small amounts of warming are important. SR15 had a bigger influence on the media and the public than most IPCC reports. It made the 1.5 °C goal a central focus for climate activists.

The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly meetings held under the UNFCCC. These meetings are the official gatherings of the UNFCCC Parties (called Conferences of the Parties or COP) to review progress on climate change. Starting in the mid-1990s, these conferences also discussed the Kyoto Protocol, which created legally binding rules for developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Since 2005, these conferences have also been the Meetings of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP). Since 2016, they have also been the Meetings of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).

The first conference (COP1) happened in 1995 in Berlin. The third conference (COP3) took place in Kyoto and led to the Kyoto Protocol, which was later updated during the 2012 Doha Conference (COP18, CMP8). The COP21 (CMP11) conference was held in Paris in 2015 and resulted in the Paris Agreement. COP28 occurred in the United Arab Emirates in 2023 and included the first global review of the Paris Agreement. The UAE chose Sultan al-Jaber, who also leads Abu Dhabi's national oil company ADNOC, to lead COP28. Azerbaijan will host COP29 in 2024.

A subsidiary body is a committee that helps the Conference of the Parties. Subsidiary bodies include:

• Permanent: The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) was created by Article 9 of the UNFCCC to provide the Conference of the Parties and other groups with information and advice on scientific and technological issues related to the convention. It connects expert information (like from the IPCC) with the COP, which focuses on making policies. The Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) was created by Article 10 of the UNFCCC to help the Conference of the Parties assess how well the convention is being followed. It gives recommendations on policy and implementation issues to the COP and other groups if needed.
• Temporary: Ad hoc Group on Article 13 (AG13), active from 1995 to 1998; Ad hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM), active from 1995 to 1997; Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP), created in 2005 by the Kyoto Protocol Parties to discuss future commitments for industrialized countries after 2012; it finished its work in 2012 when the CMP adopted the Doha Amendment; Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA), created in Bali in 2007 to negotiate a stronger international climate agreement; Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP), created at COP17 in Durban in 2011 to develop a new climate agreement applicable to all countries. The ADP completed its work in Paris on December 5, 2015.

A "National Communication" is a report that countries that have joined the UNFCCC must submit. Developed countries must submit these reports every four years, while developing countries are also expected to do so. Some Least Developed Countries have not submitted reports in the past 5–15 years, mainly because they lack the resources or ability to do so.

National Communication reports are often hundreds of pages long and describe a country's efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and its risks and effects from climate change. These reports follow guidelines agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC. The (Intended) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are part of the Paris Agreement, are shorter and less detailed but also follow a standard structure and are reviewed by experts.

At the 19th session of the Conference of the Parties in Warsaw in 2013, the UNFCCC created a system for countries to submit Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) before the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties in Paris (COP21) in 2015. Countries were allowed to design their climate plans in ways that fit their own needs. This flexibility let developing countries create plans that matched their specific needs for adapting to and reducing climate change.

After COP21, these INDCs became Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) once each country joined the Paris Agreement, unless a new NDC was submitted to the UNFCCC at the same time. The 22nd session of the Conference of the Parties (COP22) in Marrakesh focused on these NDCs and how to implement them after the Paris Agreement started on November 4, 2016.

Membership and participation

As of 2022, the UNFCCC has 198 parties, including all United Nations member states, United Nations General Assembly observers such as the State of Palestine and the Holy See, UN non-member states like Niue and the Cook Islands, and the supranational union, the European Union.

The United States announced its intention to withdraw from the treaty in January 2026. This is the only country to do so.

Parties to the UNFCCC are classified as:

• Annex I: There are 43 Parties listed in Annex I of the convention, including the European Union. These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition" (EITs). The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe.
• Annex II: Of the Parties listed in Annex I, 24 are also listed in Annex II, including the European Union. These Parties are members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as of 1992, excluding Turkey, plus the European Union. Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and technical support to EITs and developing countries to help them reduce greenhouse gas emissions and manage the effects of climate change.
• Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs. These countries are given special status under the treaty because they have limited ability to adapt to climate change.
• Non-Annex I: Parties not listed in Annex I are mostly low-income developing countries. Developing countries may choose to join Annex I when they become sufficiently developed.

There are 43 Annex I Parties, including the European Union. These countries are classified as industrialized countries and economies in transition. Of these, 24 are also Annex II Parties, and 14 are Economies in Transition.

Annex I countries (24 of these are also Annex II Parties):
Annex I countries that are Economies in Transition:

In 2014, the UN, along with Peru and France, created the Global Climate Action Portal NAZCA to record and review all climate commitments.

Thousands of observers from civil society, business, and academia attend the COPs. They organize a large program of activities, including officially coordinated "side events." These events support and inform the official negotiations.

Civil Society Observers under the UNFCCC have formed loose groups that include about 90% of all admitted organizations. Some groups remain outside these groupings, such as faith groups or national parliamentarians. The UNFCCC secretariat also recognizes the following groups as informal NGO groups (as of 2016): Faith-based organizations, Education and Capacity Building and Outreach NGOs, and parliamentarians.

An overview is given in the table below.

Analysis

The main goal of the Framework Convention includes important words that are explained below and shown in italics: "keeping greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere at a point that stops harmful human actions from damaging the climate system."

To keep greenhouse gas levels steady, human-caused emissions must first reach a high point and then decrease (see climate change mitigation). Lower goals for stabilizing greenhouse gas levels would require emissions to peak and drop sooner than if higher goals are chosen. These lower goals are linked to smaller amounts of global warming compared to higher goals.

There are many different opinions about what level of climate change is harmful. Scientific studies can explain the risks of climate change, but deciding which risks are harmful depends on values and choices.

The global warming that has already happened poses risks to some human and natural systems. More warming usually increases the chance of harmful effects. Climate change risks are "considerable" with 1 to 2 °C of warming compared to before the industrial era. Warming of 4 °C would greatly increase risks, possibly causing widespread loss of animal and plant life and less food availability worldwide and in specific areas.

Climate change policies might create costs that are important to Article 2. For example, stricter policies to control greenhouse gas emissions could reduce the risk of severe climate change, but these policies might also cost more to carry out.

When making decisions, the precautionary principle is used when events that might be dangerous, cannot be undone, or could cause major harm are identified, even if the exact effects of these events are not fully understood. The precautionary principle means acting to avoid these negative effects. Following this principle, uncertainty about the exact effects of climate change is not a reason to do nothing. This idea is recognized in Article 3.3 of the UNFCCC.

Experts and environmental groups criticize Article 3(5) of the convention, which says that climate measures that could limit international trade should be avoided.

Reception

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, an agreement under it, have faced criticism for not meeting their goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The UNFCCC is an international organization focused on climate change. It can be slow to make decisions because it includes over 190 countries, and all must agree before actions are taken. This can lead to delays if some countries disagree.

Since 1992, international efforts to create strong treaties for reducing emissions have not been successful. This led some countries, like the United States, to avoid signing the Kyoto Protocol because the agreement did not require developing countries to reduce emissions. These countries now include the largest carbon dioxide emitters. However, the Kyoto Protocol did not consider the historical responsibility of industrialized nations for climate change or the emissions linked to consuming goods (carbon footprint). Canada left the Kyoto Protocol in 2011 to avoid penalties that would cost its citizens money. Both the United States and Canada now use voluntary programs to reduce emissions without the Kyoto Protocol.

Some countries believe the UNFCCC is not making enough progress, so they have started other efforts. For example, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition focuses on reducing short-lived pollutants like methane and black carbon, which contribute to global warming but are easier to regulate than other emissions.

In 2010, Japan refused to join a second Kyoto agreement because it would limit its emissions while its economic rivals, like China and India, would not face similar rules. New Zealand’s leader also expressed similar concerns in 2012. At a 2012 meeting, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan opposed parts of the agreement, and they may not support it in the future. These actions add pressure to the UNFCCC, which some say is slow and costly. For example, the UK’s climate change department spent over £1,300,000 on 3,000 flights in two years.

The Kyoto Protocol also failed to help developing countries access technologies like renewable energy, which can reduce climate risks. The UNFCCC created a group to share these technologies, but it did not provide enough support. This led to low participation in the Kyoto Protocol’s second phase.

The Paris Agreement, signed in 2015, aims to limit global warming, but experts say it may not be enough to keep temperature rises below 1.5°C. Many details of the agreement are still being worked out, so it is too early to fully judge its success. A 2020 report from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) warned that current commitments under the Paris Agreement could lead to global temperatures rising more than 3°C by 2100. Newer goals, like achieving net zero emissions, are not included in the agreements countries have made.

Countries’ initial pledges to reduce emissions are not enough to meet climate goals. If these pledges are not followed, more expensive actions will be needed in the future. A gap exists between what countries promise and what they actually do. Studies in 2017 showed that major industrialized nations had not met their emission reduction targets, and even if they had, the combined efforts of all countries would not keep warming below 2°C.

A 2021 study suggested that emissions must be reduced 80% more than current plans to meet the Paris Agreement’s 2°C target. The chances of major emitters meeting their goals without this increase are very low. If current trends continue, there is only a 5–26% chance of keeping warming below 2°C even if all countries meet their pledges.

As of 2020, there is limited research on how well the Paris Agreement helps countries adapt to climate change or build their capacity to address it. Available studies show mixed results about how to handle climate-related losses and damages.

A recent report showed that the Paris Agreement has had some success. In 2010, scientists predicted global temperatures could rise by 3.7–4.8°C by 2100. At a 2023 meeting, the expected rise was reduced to 2.4–2.6°C. If all countries meet their long-term goals, warming could be limited to 1.7–2.1°C. However, the world is still far from the goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C. To achieve this, emissions must peak by 2025. Recent data shows that Earth may have already entered a 20-year period where the average temperature will be 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Some scientists suggest that the global average temperature may have already reached 1.5°C in 2024.

The Paris Agreement has also influenced the focus of recent reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Before the agreement, IPCC reports discussed warming above and below 2°C equally. However, after the Paris Agreement, recent reports focus more on limiting warming to 1.5°C, with less than 20% of mentions about temperatures above 2°C and nearly 50% about 1.5°C.

Awards

In 2016, the UNFCCC was given the "Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation" by the Princess of Asturias Awards.