Fracking, also called hydraulic fracturing, fracing, hydrofracturing, or hydrofracking, is a method used to help oil, gas, or water flow more easily from deep underground rock layers. This process uses high-pressure liquid, called "fracking fluid," which is mostly water mixed with sand or other materials that keep cracks open. The liquid is injected into a well to create small cracks in the rock, allowing natural gas, petroleum, and brine (a type of salty water) to move more freely. When the pressure is removed, the sand or other materials stay in the cracks to keep them open.

Fracking, whether using high pressure or acid, is the most common way to improve the flow of oil, gas, or water from wells. These methods help create paths for these resources to flow, which increases how much can be taken from a well. Both types of fracking are considered unconventional because they permanently increase the ability of rock layers to allow fluids to pass through. This changes how rocks that contain oil and gas are classified, as the rock that originally held the oil or gas can become the place where it is collected after treatment.

Hydraulic fracking is more widely known to the public and is the main method used in oil and gas extraction. However, acid fracking has been used for a longer time. The oil and gas industry often uses fracturing, though the term "fracking" is now more commonly used in media and everyday language.

Definition

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and acidising (acid fracking) are two common methods used to stimulate wells. A flow chart shows that hydraulic fracking and acid fracking, shown in yellow, are types of unconventional hydraulic methods. However, acidising is complicated because matrix acidising is considered a conventional method. It occurs below the fracture gradient of the rock.

In the UK, laws and permits related to hydrocarbons (see Fracking in the United Kingdom), Adriana Zalucka and others reviewed different definitions and the roles of key regulators in a 2021 peer-reviewed article. They proposed a new, clear definition for unconventional well treatments:

This definition focuses on increasing permeability rather than specific extraction methods. It uses the widely accepted 0.1 millidarcy cutoff value, below which rocks are considered impermeable. It excludes processes like acid squeeze or acid wash from being classified as unconventional by using a 1-meter radius rule. It avoids definitions based on factors like the amount of water injected or injection pressure, which are controversial. It also excludes non-hydrocarbon wells from being considered unconventional.

The definition includes perspectives from the hydrocarbon industry and the US Geological Survey. Low permeability, defined as less than 0.1 millidarcies, means the resource is unconventional, requiring special extraction methods. Resources with permeability above this value can be extracted using conventional methods. Unconventional resources are also described as widely spread, with low energy density (low concentration) and unclear volume boundaries, unlike conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs, which have defined boundaries.

Although this definition was created in the UK context, it applies universally.

Hydraulic fracking

Hydraulic fracking is the most common method used to increase the flow of oil and gas from underground rock layers. This process uses high-pressure liquid to create cracks in deep rock formations. The liquid, called "fracking fluid," is mostly water mixed with sand or other materials that help keep the cracks open. When the pressure is released, these materials stay in the cracks, allowing natural gas, oil, and brine to flow more easily.

Hydraulic fracking was first tested in 1947, and the first successful use happened in 1949. By 2012, over 2.5 million fracking operations had been done worldwide, with more than one million in the United States. This process is often needed to get enough oil and gas from difficult-to-reach rock layers, such as shale gas and tight oil. Some cracks in rocks can form naturally, but most are created through fracking.

Fracking has helped the United States become a major oil exporter since 2019. However, it has also caused more methane, a strong greenhouse gas, to escape into the air. The increase in oil and gas production has lowered energy costs for consumers, reducing the amount of money families spend on energy.

Fracking is a topic of debate. Supporters say it helps the economy by making oil and gas easier to access, reduces pollution by replacing coal with cleaner-burning natural gas, and improves energy independence. Opponents worry about harm to the environment, such as water pollution, air pollution, and earthquakes. Studies have found health problems in people living near fracking sites, including issues like pregnancy complications, headaches, and asthma. Following safety rules is important to reduce these risks.

It is unclear how much methane leaks during fracking, and some research suggests this leakage might cancel out the benefits of using natural gas over other fuels. Earthquakes linked to fracking sometimes happen when wastewater from drilling is injected deep underground. Because of these concerns, many countries are studying or limiting fracking. The European Union is creating rules to allow controlled use of fracking in some cases.

Geology

Fracturing rocks deep underground is often stopped by pressure from the weight of rock layers above and by the rock layers being glued together by minerals. This process is especially important for "tensile" (Mode 1) fractures, which need the sides of the crack to move against this pressure. Fracturing happens when the pressure inside the rock overcomes the force holding the rock together. The smallest stress becomes a pulling force and becomes stronger than the rock can handle. Fractures formed this way usually lie in a flat plane opposite the smallest stress. Because of this, hydraulic fractures in oil or gas wells can show the direction of underground stresses. In natural examples, like dikes or mineral-filled cracks, the direction of these fractures can help scientists understand past stress conditions.

Most mineral veins form when rocks break many times during periods when there is a lot of water pressure inside the rocks. This is especially clear in "crack-seal" veins, where each time a crack opens, new material fills it. One example of repeated fracturing over a long time is the effects of earthquakes. Stress levels change suddenly, and earthquakes can push large amounts of water out of cracks filled with fluid. This process is called "seismic pumping."

Small rock intrusions near the Earth's surface, like dikes, spread as cracks filled with fluid. In these cases, the fluid is molten rock. In rocks with a lot of water, the fluid at the ends of cracks can become steam.

History

Fracking, a method used to help oil and gas flow from hard rock wells, started in the 1860s. The idea of using water pressure to break rocks was known as early as ancient Rome, where it was called ruina montium. Dynamite or nitroglycerin was used to increase oil and gas production from rock layers. On April 24, 1865, Col. Edward A. L. Roberts, a U.S. Civil War veteran, received a patent for an "exploding torpedo." This method was used in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia with liquid and later solidified nitroglycerin. Companies like the Lightning Torpedo Company used this process in Oklahoma and Texas. Later, the same method was applied to water and gas wells. In the 1930s, acid was used instead of explosives to stimulate wells. Acid etching helped fractures stay open, which increased production.

Harold Hamm, Aubrey McClendon, Tom Ward, and George P. Mitchell are credited with developing hydraulic fracking for practical use. Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation studied how well performance relates to treatment pressures. This research led to the first hydraulic fracturing experiment in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Kansas. For the experiment, 1,000 U.S. gallons of gelled gasoline and sand from the Arkansas River were injected into a gas-producing limestone layer at 2,400 feet deep. The well’s performance did not improve much, so the experiment was not very successful. J.B. Clark of Stanolind described the process in a 1948 paper. A patent was issued in 1949, and Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company received an exclusive license. On March 17, 1949, Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Oklahoma and Texas. Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate about one million oil and gas wells worldwide with good results.

In high-permeability rock formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are used to fix "skin damage," a low-permeability zone that forms near the wellbore. These treatments may only extend a few feet from the well. In 1952, the Soviet Union conducted the first hydraulic proppant fracturing. Other countries, including Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria, later used hydraulic fracturing.

Massive hydraulic fracturing, which uses large amounts of proppant, was first applied in 1968 by Pan American Petroleum in Oklahoma. This method generally involves injecting more than 150 short tons of proppant. American geologists discovered that gas-saturated sandstones with very low permeability (less than 0.1 millidarcy) could not produce gas economically. Starting in 1973, massive hydraulic fracturing was used in gas wells in the San Juan Basin, Denver Basin, Piceance Basin, and Green River Basin in the western U.S. Similar techniques were later applied to the Clinton-Medina Sandstone in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, and the Cotton Valley Sandstone in Texas and Louisiana.

Massive hydraulic fracturing spread to western Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. Horizontal oil and gas wells were rare until the late 1980s. Texas operators began drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk and using massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing. Horizontal wells were more effective than vertical wells for producing oil from tight rock layers, as sedimentary beds are usually horizontal.

Hydraulic fracturing grew rapidly after the mid-1990s due to technological advances and higher natural gas prices. Fracturing shales began as early as 1965, when operators in Kentucky and West Virginia used small-scale fracturing on the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale. These treatments improved production, especially from low-yield wells.

In 1976, the U.S. government started the Eastern Gas Shales Project, which included public-private hydraulic fracturing demonstrations. The Gas Research Institute, a gas industry research group, received funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission during this time.

In 1997, Nick Steinsberger of Mitchell Energy (now part of Devon Energy) used a new slickwater fracturing technique with more water and higher pressure in the Barnett Shale of Texas. This method proved successful, as the well S.H. Griffin No. 3 produced more gas in its first 90 days than any previous well. This technique made gas extraction economically viable in the Barnett Shale and was later used in other shales like the Eagle Ford and Bakken. George P. Mitchell is called the "father of fracking" for his role in applying it to shale. The first horizontal well in the Barnett Shale was drilled in 1991, but horizontal drilling became common only after proving that gas could be extracted economically from vertical wells.

As of 2013, massive hydraulic fracturing was used on a large scale in the U.S., Canada, and China. Other countries are planning to use this technique.

Process

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a method used to increase the amount of natural gas, oil, or geothermal energy that can be extracted from a well. The process includes several steps: obtaining water from a source, building the well, stimulating the well with fluid, and properly disposing of waste.

A hydraulic fracture is created by pumping fracturing fluid into a well at a high speed. This increases the pressure inside the well to a level higher than the pressure of the surrounding rock. The pressure causes the rock to crack, and the fluid spreads into the cracks, making them grow larger. As the pressure decreases, the cracks stop growing. To keep the cracks open after the fluid is removed, a material called proppant—such as sand, ceramic, or other small particles—is added to the fluid. This prevents the cracks from closing. At greater depths, where pressure is higher, stronger proppant materials are needed to avoid damage. The propped cracks allow gas, oil, and water to flow back into the well.

During the process, some of the fracturing fluid may leak into the surrounding rock. If not controlled, this can use up more than 70% of the fluid injected. This can harm the rock, change how fluids move, and reduce the effectiveness of the process.

The location of fractures inside the well is carefully controlled by creating or sealing holes in the well’s side. Hydraulic fracturing is done in wells that are lined with metal casing, and the areas to be fractured are accessed by drilling through the casing.

Equipment used for hydraulic fracturing includes a machine that mixes the fluid, high-pressure pumps that push the fluid into the well, and tools that monitor pressure and flow. Other equipment includes tanks for storing fluid, containers for proppant, and chemical units to add specific substances. Chemicals make up about 0.5% of the total fluid. The equipment can operate at pressures up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and flow rates up to 265 liters per second (9.4 cubic feet per second).

There are two types of hydraulic fracturing: conventional, which uses small amounts of fluid for wells with high-permeability rock, and unconventional, which uses large amounts of fluid for tight gas or shale gas wells. Unconventional fracturing requires higher pressure to push more fluid and proppant farther from the well.

Horizontal drilling involves drilling a well that turns sideways through the rock layer, allowing access to a larger area. For example, in Texas, horizontal wells can extend up to 5,000 feet, while in North Dakota, they can reach 10,000 feet. In contrast, vertical wells only reach a short depth of 50–300 feet. Horizontal drilling reduces the number of wells needed, which helps protect the surface.

Drilling can block the spaces between rock particles near the well, reducing the flow of fluids into the well. Low-volume fracturing can help restore this flow.

The main purpose of fracturing fluid is to create cracks, reduce friction, carry proppant into the rock, and adjust the fluid’s properties. There are two ways to move proppant: using high-viscosity fluid, which creates large cracks, or high-rate fluid (slickwater), which makes smaller cracks.

Gelling agents, such as guar gum, are added to increase the fluid’s thickness and help carry proppant into the rock. Fracturing fluid is usually a mixture of water, proppant, and chemicals. Other options include gels, foams, or gases like nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Most fluid is water, with about 9.5% sand and 0.5% chemicals. Some processes use propane or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) instead of water, called waterless fracturing. When propane is used, it turns into vapor and can be collected and reused.

Proppant is a granular material that keeps cracks open after fracturing. Common types include silica sand, resin-coated sand, bauxite, and ceramic. Stronger proppant is used in high-pressure areas where natural sand might break. Silica sand is the most common proppant, but uniform ceramic proppant may work better in some cases.

The type of fracturing fluid used depends on the well’s conditions and the desired outcome. Fluids can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Each type has tradeoffs: gels are better at keeping proppant suspended, while slickwater allows faster pumping and creates longer cracks. Important fluid properties include thickness, pH, and how the fluid flows.

Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to make fracturing fluid. About 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing treatment. A typical treatment uses 3 to 12 chemical additives, including:

• Acids (like hydrochloric or acetic acid) to clean the well and create cracks.
• Sodium chloride (salt) to slow the breakdown of gel materials.
• Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers to lower resistance in the fluid flow.
• Ethylene glycol to prevent scale buildup in pipes.
• Borate salts to keep the fluid thick at higher temperatures.
• Sodium and potassium carbonates to help chemical additives work better.
• Glutaraldehyde to kill bacteria that cause corrosion.
• Guar gum and similar substances to thicken the fluid.

Uses

Hydraulic fracturing is a method used to increase the speed at which substances like petroleum or natural gas can be removed from underground natural reservoirs. These reservoirs are usually made of porous rocks such as sandstone, limestone, or dolomite, but can also include "unconventional reservoirs" like shale rock or coal beds. Hydraulic fracturing allows the removal of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below Earth's surface, typically between 2,000–6,000 meters (5,000–20,000 feet), which is much deeper than where groundwater is found. At such depths, the rock may not have enough permeability or pressure to allow oil and gas to flow into a well at a rate that is economically useful. Creating fractures in the rock helps improve the flow of these resources from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs. Permeability, or how easily fluids can move through rock, is measured in very small units called microdarcies and nanodarcies. Fractures act as pathways that connect a larger area of the reservoir to the well. A method called "super fracking" creates deeper cracks in the rock to release more oil and gas, improving efficiency. The amount of oil or gas produced from a typical shale well often decreases after the first one or two years, but the well's productive life can last for several decades.

Hydraulic fracturing is primarily used to increase production from oil and gas wells, but it is also used for other purposes:

• To improve water flow from underground water sources
• To prepare or cause rock collapses in mining operations
• To help clean up waste, such as oil or chemical spills
• To dispose of waste by injecting it deep into rock layers
• To measure stress within Earth's crust
• To generate electricity using enhanced geothermal systems
• To increase the rate at which carbon dioxide is injected underground for storage
• To store electrical energy using pumped hydroelectric systems

Since the late 1970s, hydraulic fracturing has been used in some areas to increase the amount of drinking water obtained from wells in countries such as the United States, Australia, and South Africa.

Economic effects

Hydraulic fracturing is a major method used to extract unconventional oil and gas resources, such as shale gas, tight gas, and coalbed methane. According to the International Energy Agency, the amount of these resources that can be recovered using current technology is estimated to be 208 trillion cubic meters (7,300 trillion cubic feet) for shale gas, 76 trillion cubic meters (2,700 trillion cubic feet) for tight gas, and 47 trillion cubic meters (1,700 trillion cubic feet) for coalbed methane. These resources are found in rock formations that have much lower permeability than conventional gas formations. Because of this, hydraulic fracturing is often needed to extract them. While other methods, such as conventional drilling or horizontal drilling, can also be used, hydraulic fracturing is essential for making extraction economically feasible. The multi-stage fracturing technique has helped increase shale gas and light tight oil production in the United States and may do the same in other countries with similar resources.

Most studies show that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has provided strong economic benefits. The Brookings Institution estimates that shale gas alone has contributed a net economic benefit of $48 billion each year. Much of this benefit comes from lower natural gas prices, which help consumers and industries save money. However, some research suggests that the economic benefits may be less than the environmental and social costs, and that electricity from sources that use less water and produce fewer carbon emissions is often cheaper.

A major advantage of hydraulic fracturing is reducing the need to import natural gas and oil, as the money spent on domestic production stays within the country. However, shale oil and gas production in the United States is heavily subsidized, meaning it has not yet covered its full production costs. This means the cost of hydraulic fracturing is often paid through taxes, and in many cases, the cost is more than double what consumers pay at the pump.

Research indicates that hydraulic fracturing can negatively affect agricultural productivity near drilling sites. One study found that irrigated crop productivity decreases by 5.7% when a well is drilled during the active farming season within 11–20 kilometers of a producing township. This effect weakens as the distance from the well increases. In Alberta, Canada, the introduction of hydraulic fracturing wells was estimated to have reduced crop productivity by $14.8 million in 2014.

The Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy predicts that 45% of U.S. gas supply will come from shale gas by 2035. Most of this shale gas will replace conventional gas, which has a smaller environmental impact in terms of greenhouse gas emissions.

Public debate

An anti-fracking movement has grown both globally, with support from international environmental groups and countries like France, and locally in areas affected by drilling, such as Balcombe in Sussex, where protests occurred in mid-2013. In the United States, strong opposition to fracking in local communities has led companies to use public relations strategies to gain public trust, such as hiring former military personnel trained in psychological warfare. Matt Pitzarella, a communications director at Range Resources, stated that employees trained in the Middle East helped the company in Pennsylvania during tense town meetings and provided guidance on zoning and local laws related to fracking.

Many protests against fracking have taken place. For example, ten people were arrested in 2013 near New Matamoras, Ohio, after they entered a restricted area and attached themselves to drilling equipment. In northwest Pennsylvania, a drive-by shooting occurred at a well site, with two bullets fired at a drilling rig. In Washington County, Pennsylvania, a contractor discovered a pipe bomb placed near a pipeline construction site. Authorities said the bomb could have caused a "catastrophe" if not found and safely removed.

The U.S. Department of State created the Global Shale Gas Initiative to encourage other countries to allow fracking operations. Documents from leaked U.S. diplomatic cables showed that U.S. officials held conferences for foreign leaders, featuring presentations by oil and gas company representatives and public relations experts who advised on how to address public concerns about fracking. This effort was successful, as many countries, including Poland, agreed to allow fracking on large portions of their land. The U.S. Export-Import Bank provided $4.7 billion in funding for fracking projects in Queensland, Australia, since 2010.

In 2014, European officials suggested that some protests against fracking in countries like Lithuania and Ukraine might have been supported by Gazprom, Russia’s state-owned gas company. The New York Times reported that Russia feared losing its influence over European natural gas markets if fracking expanded in Eastern Europe, as it would open access to shale gas reserves in the region. Russian officials have publicly stated that fracking causes serious environmental harm.

Fracking is currently happening in the United States in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming. As of 2024, seven major fracking operations are active in the U.S., including the Bakken in North Dakota, the Niobrara in Wyoming and Colorado, Anadarko in Texas and Oklahoma, Permian and Eagle Ford in Texas, Haynesville in Texas and Louisiana, and the large Appalachia site. California has had a long ban on fracking, and Vermont, New York, Maryland, Washington, and Oregon have statewide bans.

Although a fracking ban was recently lifted in the United Kingdom, the government is moving carefully due to concerns about earthquakes and environmental damage. France and Bulgaria currently ban fracking.

Josh Fox’s 2010 Academy Award-nominated film Gasland became a major point of discussion about fracking. The film showed problems with groundwater contamination near drilling sites in Pennsylvania, Wyoming, and Colorado. Energy in Depth, an industry group, questioned the film’s accuracy. Gasland’s website posted a rebuttal to these claims. The director of Colorado’s oil and gas commission offered to be interviewed for the film but was declined. ExxonMobil, Chevron, and ConocoPhillips ran advertisements in 2011 and 2012 highlighting the benefits of natural gas and claiming fracking is safe.

The 2012 film Promised Land, starring Matt Damon, criticized fracking. The gas industry responded with flyers and social media posts. In 2013, Northern Irish filmmaker Phelim McAleer released FrackNation, a crowdfunded documentary challenging claims in Gasland and promoting fracking as safe. The film premiered on Mark Cuban’s AXS TV around the same time as Promised Land. In 2013, Josh Fox released Gasland 2, which explored environmental and health risks of fracking and argued that natural gas is not a clean or safe alternative to oil. In 2014, The Ethics of Fracking was released, covering multiple perspectives on the issue. In 2015, the Canadian film Fractured Land premiered at a documentary festival.

Research on fracking is often controversial because the source of funding can influence results. Studies supported by corporations, environmental groups, or governments sometimes raise concerns about reliability. Some researchers and media outlets have reported challenges in publishing findings due to pressure from the industry and government. There is ongoing discussion about the need for more research into the environmental and health impacts of fracking.

Health risks

There is concern about the possible negative effects on public health from hydraulic fracturing activities. A 2013 review on shale gas production in the United States said, "as more drilling sites are built, more people may be at risk from accidents and exposure to harmful substances used in fractured wells." A 2011 study on risks recommended full disclosure of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing and drilling because many have immediate health effects, and some may cause long-term health effects.

In June 2014, Public Health England published a review of the possible public health effects of exposure to chemical and radioactive pollutants from shale gas extraction in the UK. The report examined information from countries where hydraulic fracturing already happens. The summary said: "The available evidence suggests that the risks to public health from exposure to emissions linked to shale gas extraction will be low if operations are properly managed and regulated. Most evidence shows that groundwater contamination, if it happens, is likely due to leaks from vertical boreholes. Contamination from the underground fracturing process itself is unlikely. However, spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater on the surface may affect groundwater, and air emissions could also harm health. Risks found in the literature are usually linked to poor operations or weak regulations."

A 2012 report for the European Union’s Environment Directorate identified possible risks to humans from air pollution and groundwater contamination caused by hydraulic fracturing. This led to recommendations in 2014 to reduce these risks. A 2012 guide for pediatric nurses in the U.S. noted that hydraulic fracturing might negatively affect public health and that nurses should be ready to collect information on such topics to support better community health.

A 2017 study in The American Economic Review found that "drilling additional well pads within 1 kilometer of a community water system increases the presence of shale gas-related contaminants in drinking water."

A 2022 study by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, published in Nature Energy, found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas operations—such as those using fracking—are more likely to experience early death compared to those not living near such operations.

Data from the U.S. Department of Labor, analyzed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, shows a connection between drilling activity and the number of work-related injuries, including those from motor vehicle accidents, explosions, falls, and fires. Workers in extraction also face risks of developing lung diseases, such as lung cancer and silicosis, which can result from exposure to silica dust from rock drilling and sand handling. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified airborne silica exposure as a health risk for some hydraulic fracturing workers. NIOSH and OSHA issued a joint warning about this hazard in June 2012.

Workers in the extraction industry are also at higher risk for radiation exposure because fracking often involves drilling into rocks containing naturally occurring radioactive materials, such as radon, thorium, and uranium.

A report in the Canadian Medical Journal found that research identified 55 factors that may cause cancer, including 20 that increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma. A Yale Public Health analysis warned that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals.

Despite these health concerns and efforts to pause fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood, the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuels. In 2017, 37% of the U.S.’s annual energy use came from petroleum, 29% from natural gas, 14% from coal, 9% from nuclear power, and only 11% from renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.

Environmental justice

Fracking can lead to many environmental justice issues. One major problem is how fracking wells affect the communities where they are built. Most fracking sites in the United States are located in poor, rural areas. These areas often include people of color and Native peoples, who are more likely to suffer from the harmful effects of fracking, such as pollution and health risks.

Some fracking companies claim their operations will create jobs in the communities where they operate. However, a report by Sean O'Leary, a researcher, explains that completed wells require few permanent workers, and many of the people who work in drilling and fracking are not from the local area. This becomes a problem because many fracking sites are built in poor, rural communities where jobs are needed. Studies have shown that in some areas, employment rates have decreased after fracking began. For example, from 2008 to 2024, large gas companies in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia generated significant economic output, but local jobs in those areas fell by 1%, while national job growth was 14%. In the same time period, employment in fracking regions increased by 4%, compared to a 10% national increase, and local income growth was about three-quarters of the national average. Sean O'Leary noted that even though some studies suggest fracking improves economic conditions, these benefits often do not reach the communities most affected by fracking’s harmful effects.

In North Jackson, Ohio, a man named Mel Cadle allowed oil companies to build wells on his land in exchange for promised financial payments. However, Cadle later said he received no income from the wells and lost five acres of his land without compensation. This reflects a pattern where companies make false promises to landowners in poor rural areas.

Native peoples also face unfair treatment because of fracking. Companies and the government often take Native lands to extract resources like oil and gas. Federal laws, such as the Mineral Leasing Act of 1938 and the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, limit Native peoples’ control over resources on their lands. A study by Shelley Palmer and other researchers found that untreated wastewater from fracking is sometimes dumped on Native American lands, causing pollution and health risks.

Fracking also harms the environment and health in rural communities. Research by Matthew Castell shows that federal laws and common legal rules do not provide solutions for communities harmed by fracking. Another study by Vivian Underhill and a professor of sociology and environmental sustainability found that between 2014 and 2024, 62% to 73% of reported fracking operations each year used chemicals that the Safe Drinking Water Act identifies as harmful to human health and the environment. Without the Halliburton Loophole, these projects would have required permits and monitoring to inform local communities about potential risks.

Environmental impacts

Hydraulic fracturing can cause several environmental problems, including air pollution, climate change, high water use, groundwater contamination, land use changes, induced earthquakes, noise pollution, and health effects on people.

Air pollution from fracking mainly comes from methane, a strong greenhouse gas, that leaks from wells and equipment used during the process. Modern rules in the UK and EU require no methane emissions, but older wells often leak more methane than newer ones.

In December 2016, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a report showing that fracking can harm drinking water. The report listed several ways this can happen:
– Using water for fracking in areas with little available water
– Spills of chemicals used in fracking that reach groundwater
– Mistakes during fracking that allow chemicals to move into groundwater
– Direct injection of fracking fluids into groundwater
– Leaks of wastewater from broken equipment into surface water
– Poorly managed waste pits that pollute groundwater

Shale oil produces 21% to 47% more greenhouse gases than regular oil, while unconventional gas produces 6% less to 43% more greenhouse gases than regular gas.

Fracking uses between 1.2 and 3.5 million gallons of water per well, with some projects using up to 5 million gallons. Over a well’s lifetime, it may use 3 to 8 million gallons. In Europe, more water is needed because shale is deeper than in the U.S. Surface and groundwater can become polluted if fracking fluids escape through old wells, fractures, or faults, or if wastewater leaks from storage. Most produced water is handled through underground injection, treatment, or reuse.

Fracking can pollute water. After drilling, fluids may remain underground and contaminate groundwater or connect to aquifers. Wastewater from fracking is toxic and must be stored, treated, and safely discharged. However, it is often stored in ponds that can leak into the ground and harm wildlife. Federal and state laws have not fully protected water resources because some laws exempt fracking from key environmental protections.

People get drinking water from rivers, lakes, or groundwater. Many cases show that fracking has polluted groundwater near homes, forcing residents to use outside water sources.

Chemicals used in fracking can become PFAS, or "forever chemicals," linked to cancer and birth defects. These chemicals stay in the environment and can enter groundwater through leaks. PFAS can also pollute large wastewater storage tanks.

Fracking uses a lot of water, with one well using 1.5 to 16 million gallons. In dry areas, this can strain local water supplies. Since 2011, fracking has used nearly 1.5 trillion gallons of water nationwide, equal to Texas’s yearly water use.

Over 12 million acres of land are used for fossil fuel extraction in the U.S., an area six times the size of Yellowstone National Park. Each drilling site needs about 3.6 acres of land, which can harm wildlife by breaking up habitats. After wells stop working, the land must be cleaned up. Studies suggest this harms natural services worth over $250 million yearly in the U.S. Fracking also creates noise from drilling and truck traffic, which can disturb people and animals.

In 2013, the U.S. Federal Railroad Administration said fracking chemicals might cause oil tank cars to corrode.

Fracking can cause earthquakes in areas that rarely have them. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) says fracking is a major cause of at least 2% of U.S. earthquakes, possibly more. Injecting wastewater into deep wells has led to many earthquakes, especially in Texas and Oklahoma. Before 2008, Texas’s Dallas-Fort Worth area had no recorded earthquakes, but now it has six times more.

Research continues to study how air and water pollution from fracking may affect human health. Strict safety rules and regulations are needed to prevent harm and reduce risks.

Regulations

Countries that use or are thinking about using hydraulic fracturing have created different rules, including national and local laws, and limits on where drilling can happen. In 2011, France became the first country to ban hydraulic fracturing after public concern. This decision was based on the idea of protecting the environment and preventing harm before problems occur. A court in France confirmed the ban in 2013. Other countries, like Scotland, have temporarily stopped hydraulic fracturing because of health worries and public opposition. South Africa has removed its ban and now focuses on making rules instead of stopping the practice completely. Germany has proposed rules that would allow hydraulic fracturing for shale gas, except in wetland areas. In China, rules for shale gas are still difficult to create because of complicated connections with other laws, especially those about trade. Many areas in Australia have either banned or paused hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas. In 2019, the United Kingdom banned hydraulic fracturing.

The European Union has created guidelines for basic rules about using large amounts of water in hydraulic fracturing. These rules require companies to share information about all chemicals used. In the United States, an organization called the Ground Water Protection Council started FracFocus.org, a website where companies voluntarily share details about the liquids used in hydraulic fracturing. This website is supported by oil and gas companies and the U.S. government. Hydraulic fracturing is not covered by the Safe Drinking Water Act’s rules about underground water injection, except when diesel fuel is used. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency checks drilling permits when diesel fuel is involved.

In 2012, Vermont became the first U.S. state to ban hydraulic fracturing. On December 17, 2014, New York became the second U.S. state to completely ban hydraulic fracturing because of possible dangers to people and the environment.