Environmental justice is a movement that works to fix unfair situations where poor or unfairly treated groups face harm from dangerous waste, mining, or other land uses that do not help them. Studies show that harm from the environment is not shared fairly. Many groups, such as Black or racially targeted communities and LGBTQ people, are more likely to suffer from natural disasters.

Environmental justice means that everyone, no matter their race, background, or money, should be treated fairly and have a say in rules about the environment. Over time, experts have explored many different parts of this idea.

This movement started in the United States in the 1980s. It was inspired by the civil rights movement and focused on unfair treatment of people based on race in wealthy countries. Later, the movement included issues like gender, LGBTQ rights, problems in other countries, and differences within groups that face challenges. As this movement made progress in rich countries, harmful environmental activities, such as mining or waste dumping, moved to poorer countries. Now, the movement is global, with the United Nations helping to set goals. It connects with efforts to protect Indigenous lands and the right to a healthy environment.

The goal is to help unfairly treated groups have control over environmental decisions that affect them. This movement started from local fights where people protect their homes from companies involved in mining or other industries. These local efforts are now supported by groups that work across countries.

Experts who study environmental justice have written many research papers that cover areas like political ecology, environmental law, and ideas about fairness and protecting the environment.

Scope

Environmental justice has become a broad global movement that has introduced many new ideas to the study of how the environment and politics interact. These ideas include ecological debt, environmental racism, climate justice, food sovereignty, corporate accountability, ecocide, sacrifice zones, and environmentalism of the poor. This movement seeks to improve human rights law, which has traditionally ignored how the environment affects people's rights. Even though efforts have been made to include environmental protection in human rights law, problems remain, especially regarding climate justice.

Scholars like Kyle Powys Whyte and Dina Gilio-Whitaker have expanded the discussion on environmental justice, focusing on Indigenous peoples and the effects of settler-colonialism. Gilio-Whitaker points out that the idea of distributive justice, which assumes land should be treated as a commodity, does not match the views of many Indigenous communities. Whyte examines how colonialism has caused serious harm to the traditional ways of life and identities of Indigenous peoples through environmental damage.

Definitions

The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines environmental justice as the fair sharing of environmental risks and benefits among all people. Environmental justice is also referred to as environmental racism or environmental inequality.

Environmental justice is often described as distributive justice, which means ensuring that environmental risks and benefits are shared fairly. Some definitions also include procedural justice, which focuses on fair and meaningful participation in decisions that affect the environment. Other scholars highlight recognition justice, which involves acknowledging the unique challenges and histories faced by communities affected by environmental harm. A just society also considers how people can use shared resources to build strong, thriving communities. Efforts have been made to expand the idea of environmental justice beyond the three main areas of distribution, participation, and recognition to include other aspects, such as self-governing authority, different ways of understanding relationships, and fairness in knowledge and understanding.

Robert D. Bullard explains that environmental justice, as a movement and a way of thinking, can be understood as a discussion about fairness. He identifies three main areas of fairness: how decisions are made (procedural), where environmental harm occurs (geographic), and how different groups are treated (social). In his work "Confronting Environmental Racism in the Twenty-First Century," Bullard explains how these areas relate to environmental injustices.

In non-Native communities, people who face environmental harm often rely on laws and rules created by the EPA. These laws focus on how private property is owned and managed. Native Americans are not subject to the same laws because they are members of Indigenous nations, not ethnic minorities. As individuals, they follow American laws. As nations, they have their own legal systems based on treaties and the U.S. Constitution. For Indigenous people, environmental justice is not defined by legal systems but by their own cultural and spiritual beliefs.

Environmental justice for Indigenous peoples is often discussed in the context of their history of colonization. David Pellow notes that while Indigenous experiences vary, they share common challenges from colonization that can be used to create general methods for addressing environmental justice while still respecting local differences. Ideas like the right to a clean environment, which the United Nations recognizes as a human right, may conflict with Indigenous views because they focus on land as a resource, which can ignore cultural and spiritual values.

David Pellow, drawing from ideas in anarchism, posthumanism, critical theory, and intersectional feminism, introduced the concept of Critical Environmental Justice (CEJ). CEJ aims to address gaps and challenges in traditional environmental justice studies. It encourages research that questions past assumptions, uses knowledge from many fields, and explores methods and ways of understanding beyond the social sciences. CEJ scholars believe that many forms of inequality contribute to environmental injustice.

Traditional environmental studies and CEJ studies are different in four main ways: (1) looking at how factors like race, gender, and class overlap (intersectionality); (2) considering environmental issues across different places and times (spatial and temporal scale); (3) seeking solutions that do not depend on government action; and (4) recognizing the importance of all living beings.

In What is Critical Environmental Justice, Pellow explains these ideas further.

History

Environmental injustices have existed for many years, even before records were kept. For example, Indigenous peoples have faced serious harm to their environment for centuries. The environmental justice movement began with the Indigenous Environmental Movement, where Indigenous people fought for their rights to land and self-governance for many years. One example is the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, which is sacred to the Diné people of the Navajo Nation. This area was once used for uranium mining and oil and gas production. Even though the mines are no longer active, they still affect the health of the Indigenous community, and people continue to work to protect their homes. Interestingly, Indigenous lands cover about 22% of the Earth's surface and are home to around 80% of the world's remaining plants and animals.

The terms "environmental justice" and "environmental racism" became widely used after legal cases in 1979 in Texas and 1982 in North Carolina. In 1979, a case called Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management Corporation happened in Houston after a garbage dump was planned for a neighborhood. People argued that the decision was unfair because it affected a racial group more than others. A person named R. Bullard collected data about waste sites in Houston from 1970 to 1979. Even though the case was not won, it helped create the idea of environmental justice as a legal term. Bullard’s findings were later confirmed in a 1983 report.

The environmental justice movement began in Warren County, North Carolina, in late 1978. Residents of Afton, a small community, learned that the state planned to bury soil polluted with a chemical called PCB in their area. This decision was made after PCBs were spilled along roads and at a military base. A public meeting was held in January 1979 to get approval for the plan. Warren County residents were angry and formed a group called Warren County Citizens Concerned About PCBs (WCCC) to protest.

In 1982, Warren County residents protested again when the state planned to build a landfill for PCBs. The chemical had spread across 270 miles of roads in 14 counties and at a military base. The state chose Warren County, the poorest county in North Carolina, to build the landfill. The site was in Afton, a mostly Black community. Residents protested for six weeks, and over 500 people were arrested.

The protests in Warren County inspired future environmental groups. A man named Rev. Benjamin Chavis, who worked for the United Church of Christ, helped organize the protests and was arrested. He is credited with creating the term "environmental racism" while in jail. His work, along with Rev. Leon White, helped raise awareness about environmental justice.

After the protests, studies were done to see how toxic waste sites and hazardous waste facilities were placed. These studies found that race was a major factor in where these facilities were located. This led to more protests and lawsuits against waste disposal in poor and Black communities. The mainstream environmental movement was criticized for being led mostly by white, wealthy people and not addressing fairness issues.

In 1990, the EPA created the Environmental Equity Work Group (EEWG) after studies showed that racial minorities and low-income people faced more environmental risks. In 1992, the EPA published a report called Environmental Equity: Reducing Risks for All Communities, which was the first time the agency looked at environmental risks in communities of color.

In 1993, the EPA formed the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council (NEJAC). In 1994, the group’s name was changed to the Office of Environmental Justice because people wanted to focus on fairness rather than just equality. That same year, President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order 12898, which created a group to address environmental justice in minority and low-income communities. This order is still an important part of environmental justice laws in the United States.

In the 1970s and 1980s, groups and organizations worked to make it more expensive to dispose of hazardous waste. This led to more hazardous waste being sent to countries in the Global South during the 1980s and 1990s. This global injustice, including toxic waste disposal and resource use, helped form the global environmental justice movement.

Environmental justice became an international topic in 1991 at the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in Washington, D.C. The event was organized by the United Church of Christ’s Commission for Racial Justice and had people from all 50 U.S. states and several countries. The summit expanded the environmental justice movement to include issues like public health, worker safety, housing, and community power. The summit created 17 Principles of Environmental Justice, which were shared at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil. These principles are similar to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.

In 2002, a group of organizations met in Bali to prepare for the 2002 Earth Summit. These groups included CorpWatch, World Rainforest Movement, and Friends of the Earth.

Environmental discrimination and conflict

The environmental justice movement works to solve problems caused by unfair treatment of people and the environment. These issues include the improper disposal of dangerous waste, taking natural resources, taking land, and other harmful activities. This unfair treatment causes harm to traditional ways of life, increases violence (especially against women and Indigenous people), damages the environment, and leads to conflicts. The global environmental justice movement started because of these local problems, where people who protect the environment often face challenges from large companies. These local problems are now influenced by groups that work across countries to support environmental justice.

Unfair distribution of environmental harm can happen in many ways. In the United States, race is the most important factor in environmental injustice. In other countries, poverty or caste (a system of social hierarchy in some countries) are important factors. In some places, being part of a tribe or ethnic group also matters. Scholars Laura Pulido and David Pellow say that understanding environmental racism, which comes from long-standing systems of racial inequality, is important for the movement. They explain that racial inequality continues to affect how people and nature are treated.

Environmental racism is a serious and complex problem that affects communities worldwide. It is a form of discrimination that happens because of race, class, and environmental factors. At its core, environmental racism means that people of color are more likely to live near dangerous things like pollution, toxic waste, and other risks. This problem has a long history, with examples like "redlining" in the United States. Redlining was when banks refused to give loans or insurance to communities of color, which often forced them to live in areas with high pollution.

These communities are often near factories, waste sites, and other places that cause health problems. Today, environmental racism remains a major issue, with low-income communities and communities of color facing higher risks from pollution. This can lead to serious health problems, such as asthma and cancer. Solving environmental racism needs many steps that address the social, economic, and political causes. In the United States, the Low Country Alliance for Model Communities (LAMC) helps communities in North Charleston, South Carolina, by working with local people to find solutions to health and environmental problems.

Environmental justice scholars in Latin America and other regions also study this issue through the idea of decolonization. This means that environmental racism comes from the history of Western countries taking over other lands and continuing to use unfair systems today.

As environmental justice groups have made progress in developed countries like the United States, the harmful effects of global production have moved to the Global South, where rules are often weaker, making waste disposal cheaper. In the 1980s and 1990s, the United States sent large amounts of toxic waste to other countries. Many of these countries lacked proper systems to handle the waste, and people were not told about the dangers. The Khian Sea waste incident is an example of this. Contractors from the United States dumped waste from a Pennsylvania incinerator on a beach in Haiti after other countries refused to accept it. After more than ten years of debate, the waste was finally returned to Pennsylvania. This event led to the Basel Convention, which now regulates the movement of toxic waste across borders.

Countries in the Global South often suffer the most from the environmental effects of global production and the overuse of resources in Western countries. This problem is made worse by changes in land use that take land away from small farms and give it to large companies for mining, farming, or conservation. These land grabs are driven by economic policies that favor private interests and differences in laws, land prices, and regulations that make countries in the Global South attractive to foreign investments. These actions harm Indigenous people and their traditions. Resistance to these land grabs is harder because many communities already struggle to meet basic needs.

Resource extraction is a major example of how colonial systems cause environmental racism. Studies show that communities that are often Indigenous people are more likely to suffer from the negative effects of taking natural resources. These communities often face a "resource curse," where they deal with environmental harm and short-term economic gains that lead to long-term poverty. Indigenous people living near valuable resources are often forced to leave their homes. Companies have more power than local communities, making it hard for people to have a say in decisions that affect their lives.

Studies also show that extracting resources like minerals, timber, and oil can lead to violence in communities where mining happens. In Canada, it was found that resource extraction is linked to missing and murdered Indigenous women in areas near mines and pipelines. The Environmental Justice Atlas, which records environmental justice conflicts, shows many cases of violence against Indigenous people related to resource extraction.

Unequal exchange describes the unfair trade relationship between countries in the Global North and the Global South. This means that richer countries benefit more from trade than poorer countries. This happens because of differences in costs, technology, and access to resources. Unequal exchange is viewed through the idea of decolonization, where old systems of power from colonial times still affect trade. Northern countries use things like patents, trade rules, and prices set by organizations like the World Bank or the International Monetary Fund to keep this system in place. These organizations are mostly controlled by northern countries, which helps maintain unfair trade practices. Unequal exchange continues to support unfair systems by allowing exploitation and keeping existing inequalities.

In environmental law

A major challenge for minority communities in fighting for environmental justice is the high cost of trying to change unfair practices, such as stopping companies from releasing harmful waste in areas where many minorities live. Legal battles to address these issues often require expensive fees, which can be especially difficult for low-income groups. In the United Kingdom, a rule requires the person bringing a case to pay the legal costs of the opposing side, making it harder for those with limited resources to take action. Additionally, environmental justice groups often must sue the government to hold companies accountable for polluting or breaking waste disposal laws, which can lead to high legal expenses that many cannot afford. For example, between 2005 and 2009, 56% of 210 judicial review cases did not move forward because of these costs.

Relationships to other movements and philosophies

Climate change and climate justice are important topics when discussing environmental justice and how it affects communities. Air pollution and water pollution are two causes of climate change that can lead to harmful effects, such as extreme heat, more rain, and rising sea levels. Because of these changes, communities are more likely to be harmed by events like floods and droughts. These events can cause food shortages and increase the risk of diseases linked to water, food, or infection. Today, without proper treatment, more than 80% of wastewater around the world is released into the environment. High-income countries treat about 70% of their wastewater, according to UN Water.

It has been predicted that climate change will affect the most vulnerable people the most.

Climate justice has been shaped by environmental justice, especially by grassroots efforts focused on fairness.

Marine biologist Ayana Elizabeth Johnson explains ocean justice as the point where ocean conservation and fairness meet. She asks: Who suffers most from pollution and flooding, and who benefits from conservation efforts? As sea levels rise and storms become stronger, these questions will become even more important. Fairness must be a key part of how societies address these issues.

In December 2023, the Biden administration released a strategy report aimed at improving ocean justice. The main goals of this strategy include:

• Fixing past unfairness for people who depend on the ocean but contribute little to environmental harm. These groups include Indigenous peoples, African Americans, and Hispanic and Latino Americans.
• Using the knowledge of Indigenous people and ocean communities to help restore ocean justice and protect the ocean.

Environmental groups supported this decision. Beth Lowell, vice president of Oceana, said: "Offshore drilling, managing fish populations, and reducing plastic waste are just a few areas where these voices are needed."

The official report on the strategy included examples of past actions that followed these principles. One example is Mai Ka Po Mai, a plan for managing the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument near Hawaii, developed after working with Native communities.

Compared to general environmentalism, environmental justice focuses more on the lives of everyday people and is often led by grassroots efforts. Environmental justice advocates have pointed out that mainstream environmental movements have sometimes been unfair or favor people with more resources. This is because the environmental movement was originally led by white men. People of color were not allowed to enter national or state parks and other public spaces until 1964, which limited their ability to join the movement. This led to white environmental activists ignoring issues like environmental racism. Even though more people of color have joined the movement, a 2018 study found that people of color make up only 20% of staff in environmental organizations, even though they are 36% of the U.S. population. This shows that challenges still exist.

Environmental justice and degrowth are seen as related movements because both aim to reorganize societies to be more sustainable and fair. Scholars say that degrowth can help environmental justice by setting limits on resource use and reducing the taking of natural materials. They also suggest that building strong relationships between the two movements is important for achieving their goals. Because of this, some people believe these movements could work together.

However, the possibility of working together is still debated. Scholars from the Global South say there are differences in their goals and methods. Also, degrowth's focus on using fewer resources has been criticized as being more suitable for people in Europe and not for communities in other parts of the world. Experts say more research is needed, such as studying how environmental harm is shared with the Global South, how degrowth policies might affect the world, and how to create shared ideas between the two movements. They also say degrowth should include plans that support environmental justice in the Global South.

Many people in the Reproductive Justice Movement see their work as connected to environmental justice and vice versa. Loretta Ross describes reproductive justice as the right of any woman to decide her own reproductive choices. She says this is linked to the conditions in her community, which include issues like where toxic waste is placed and the pollution of food, air, and water.

In the 1980s, Mohawk midwife Katsi Cook started the Mother's Milk Project to address the harmful effects of pollution on women and children. She focused on the contamination of water and fish near a General Motors Superfund site, which affected the Akwesasne community. Cook explained that the health of women is connected to both society and the natural world.

Ecofeminism explores the connection between environmentalism and feminist ideas. It is not the same as studying how women's health is affected by the environment. Researcher Sarah Buckingham says ecofeminism is based on the idea that protecting the environment and achieving equality for women should not come at the expense of each other. Its roots are in feminist theory, spirituality, animal rights, and movements against nuclear weapons and war. Because ecofeminism covers many different issues, some people say it is too broad to be effective in solving climate problems.

Ecofeminist ideas are discussed by feminist researchers who work in environmental groups or take part in national and international debates. Examples include the National Women's Health Network's research on industrial and environmental health, the Feminist Network of Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering's critiques of reproductive technology and genetic engineering, and the Committee on Women, Population, and the Environment's critiques of environmental approaches to controlling population growth.

Around the world

Environmental justice campaigns have started from local problems around the world. The Environmental Justice Atlas recorded 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide by April 2020 and noted that many more conflicts were not recorded.

Mining for cobalt and copper in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has caused environmental harm and conflicts, including:
• Mutanda mine
• Kamoto mine
• Tilwezembe mine

Conflict minerals mined in the DRC continue to fuel armed conflict.

Mining for gold and other minerals has caused environmental harm and conflicts in Ethiopia, including:
• Lega Dembi mine: thousands of people were exposed to mercury by MIDROC corporation, leading to poisoned food, dead livestock, and many miscarriages and birth defects.
• Kenticha mine

Since gaining independence in 1963, Kenya has focused on protecting the environment. Environmental activists like Wangari Maathai worked to protect natural resources and often faced challenges with the government led by Daniel Arap Moi. Environmental problems have grown in Nairobi due to rapid city growth, harming public spaces like Uhuru Park and Nairobi National Park to make room for projects like the Standard Gauge Railway and Nairobi Expressway. Environmental lawyer Kariuki Muigua has promoted environmental justice and legal rights, writing the Environmental Justice Thesis about Kenya's progress.

Between 1956 and 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in the Niger Delta, which is 50 times more than the Exxon Valdez disaster. Indigenous people in the region have lost their livelihoods due to these environmental problems but have not received benefits from the oil profits taken from their land. Environmental conflicts have worsened existing conflicts in the Niger Delta.

The Ogoni people, who live in Nigeria's oil-rich Delta region, have protested the harmful effects of Shell Oil's drilling and criticized human rights abuses by the Nigerian government and Shell. Their international efforts grew stronger after the 1995 execution of nine Ogoni activists, including Ken Saro-Wiwa, who helped start the nonviolent Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP).

Under colonial and apartheid governments in South Africa, thousands of Black South Africans were forced from their homes to create space for game parks. Earthlife Africa was formed in 1988, becoming Africa's first environmental justice organization. In 1992, the Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF), a group that connects environmental activists and organizations, was created. By 1995, the group had 150 members, and by 2000, it had over 600 members.

After the African National Congress (ANC) won elections in 1994, the government supported environmental justice efforts. The ANC recognized that poverty and environmental harm are closely linked in South Africa. The ANC promised to address environmental inequalities as part of its post-apartheid rebuilding plan. The new South African Constitution, completed in 1996, includes a Bill of Rights that gives South Africans the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health and to protect the environment for future generations through laws that:
1. prevent pollution and harm to nature;
2. promote conservation; and
3. ensure the environment is used wisely for future generations while supporting fair economic and social development.

South Africa's mining industry produces the most solid waste, making up about two-thirds of the country's total waste. Thousands of mine workers have died from accidents over the past century. Many workers suffer from diseases like asbestosis. People living near mines often face poor air and water quality. Noise, dust, and dangerous equipment near mines can also threaten safety. These communities are often poor and Black, with little say in where mines are built. The National Party introduced a Minerals Act that began addressing environmental concerns by recognizing worker safety and the need to restore land after mining. In 1993, the Act was updated to require all new mines to prepare an Environmental Management Program Report (EMPR) before starting work. These reports were meant to help mining companies explain possible environmental effects and plan for environmental protection.

In October 1998, the Department of Minerals and Energy released a White Paper titled A Minerals and Mining Policy for South Africa, which included a section on environmental management. The White Paper stated that the government will ensure the development of mineral resources happens within a plan for sustainable growth and in line with national environmental rules. It also said that environmental policies must support a cost-effective and competitive mining industry.

Noah Diffenbaugh and Marshall Burke studied how economic inequality and global warming are connected. For example, globalization and industrialization increase the risk of global warming. However, industrialization also helps wealth inequality continue. For instance, New Delhi is a major center for industry in India, but there is a large gap between rich and poor people. At the same time, global warming allows countries like Sweden and Norway to benefit from warmer weather, while many of the world's poorest countries are even poorer than they would have been without global warming.

In China, factories produce harmful waste like nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide, which harm health. Journalist Fred Pearce notes that most air monitoring in China focuses on one or two pollutants, such as particulates, nitrogen oxides, or sulfur dioxide. Most health studies look at the effects of one pollutant at a time, such as how they might cause breathing or heart problems. China is responsible for about one-third of the world's human-made sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate pollution. A global study estimates that 1.1 million people in China die each year from air pollution, about one-third of the world's total. The cost of these deaths is estimated at 267 billion yuan (about 38 billion U.S. dollars) each year.

Environmental conflicts in Indonesia include:
• The Arun gas field, where ExxonMobil's development of a natural gas export industry contributed to an armed conflict in Aceh. Separatist fighters led by the Free Aceh Movement tried to gain independence from the central government, which had taken billions in gas profits from the region without giving much benefit to Aceh province.

Transnational Movement Networks

Many Environmental Justice Networks that started in the United States grew to include countries around the world and became Transnational Networks for Environmental Justice. These groups work to bring environmental justice to all parts of the world and protect people everywhere from unfair environmental harm. Below are some major Transnational Social Movement Organizations.

• Amazon Watch – an organization that works to protect the rainforest and the rights of Indigenous people in the Amazon Basin in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil.
• Basel Action Network – helps stop the dumping of toxic waste in poor, developing countries by rich, developed countries.
• [1] – a group of activist-researchers that record environmental justice issues worldwide.
• Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade (EJOLT) – a global project supported by the European Commission. This group includes civil society organizations and universities from 20 countries in Europe, Africa, Latin America, and Asia. These groups create case studies, connect organizations worldwide, and build an interactive global map of environmental justice.
• GAIA (Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance) – works to find ways to dispose of waste without burning it. This group operates in over 77 countries.
• GR (Global Response) – teaches activists and workers how to protect human rights and the environment.
• Global Witness – an international group that investigates and shares information about environmental and human rights abuses, corruption, and conflicts linked to the use of natural resources.
• Greenpeace International – the first organization to become widely known as a global leader in environmental justice. Greenpeace raises awareness about the global trade of toxic waste.
• Health Care without Harm – works to improve public health by reducing the environmental harm caused by the health care industry.
• Indigenous Environmental Network – a North American group of Indigenous organizations that protect the environment and support sustainable development.
• International Campaign for Responsible Technology – works to ensure companies and governments are held accountable for how electronics are made and disposed of.
• International POPs Elimination Network – works to reduce and stop the use of harmful chemicals called persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• NDN Collective – an Indigenous-led group that supports campaigns like "Land Back," which aims to return Indigenous lands to Indigenous people.
• PAN (Pesticide Action Network) – works to replace dangerous pesticides with safer alternatives for the environment.
• Red Latinoamericana de Mujeres Defensoras de Derechos Ambientales – a regional group that supports the rights of women who protect the environment and defend the land in Latin America.

Global Environmental Activism and Policy

Global environmental inequality shows that people who are most vulnerable are often more affected by environmental harm caused by economic systems that prioritize profit and land use. Studies show that these groups have led the way in connecting human rights and environmental protection in activism and policy because they are closely involved with environmental issues. It is important for environmental rules to recognize the value of global grassroots movements led by Indigenous women and women from the Global South in helping institutions like the United Nations create better environmental justice. In recent years, the United Nations has started to include the traditions of Indigenous women and the work of women in vulnerable situations when addressing environmental health issues. More research by scientists and analysis of environmental problems through a focus on gender will help the United Nations and other groups create policies that meet the needs of women who lead the environmental justice movement.

Outer space

Over recent years, social scientists have started to study outer space using an environmental framework. Klinger, an environmental geographer, examines the environmental aspects of outer space from the viewpoints of different schools of geopolitical thought. From a classical geopolitical perspective, human exploration of outer space shows competition and conflict between countries. In this view, outer space is a valuable resource used to increase a country's power and has strategic importance. From the perspective of environmental geopolitics, the idea of sustainable development has become a shared goal among many nations. As a result, countries agree to let international groups and organizations manage global environmental issues. These shared actions also happen when humans use outer space, meaning that only powerful nations can act to protect the interests of less powerful countries. This shows that environmental justice is not fully achieved in environmental geopolitics.

Human interaction with outer space has environmental effects because changes to Earth's environment, such as local changes near launch sites, happen when people access outer space. This includes developing space-based technologies to study Earth, sending spacecraft to orbit or land on the Moon, and other activities. Different groups have competing goals for using this large area of space, and who controls these environmental effects depends on political power and relationships. This means that human activities in outer space are connected to the idea of environmental justice.

On Earth, the environmental issues related to outer space are linked to environmental justice. For example, launching spacecraft and the effects of these launches on the environment, as well as the impact of space-related technologies and facilities on human society, are important. These processes require support from industry, infrastructure, and information systems, and they happen in specific places, leading to ongoing interactions with local governments.

Rockets are usually launched in areas where the risk of damage from explosions can be controlled, often in open and uninhabited spaces. Even though these areas have no human life, other forms of life exist there, helping maintain the local ecosystem. Harmful particles from rocket launches can cause acid rain in specific areas, harm plants and animals, reduce food production, and create other dangers.

Space activities also cause environmental injustice globally. Spacecraft are the main source of pollution in the stratosphere, which comes mostly from launch activities by wealthy countries in the northern part of the world. These countries often face the greatest environmental effects from this pollution.

Environmental injustice is also shown by the limited research on how space activities affect communities and ecosystems, and by the lack of tracking pollutants through ecological systems.

While space-based technologies are used to monitor natural disasters and pollution, access to these tools and data is unequal between and within countries, which worsens environmental injustice. Powerful countries using these technologies can influence policies and institutions in less powerful countries, changing land-use rules in ways that may help or harm certain groups. For example, after the first report in the 1980s that used satellite images to track rainforest destruction in Brazil, several environmental groups gained influence and helped change laws within Brazil.