Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to electrical or electronic devices that are no longer used. It is also called waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life electronics. E-waste is one of the fastest-growing types of waste worldwide, because technology develops quickly and more people buy electronic devices. In 2022, about 62 million tonnes of e-waste were created globally, making it one of the fastest-growing waste types. Only 22.3% of this waste was properly collected and recycled. By 2030, global e-waste is expected to reach 82 million tonnes. Used electronics that are prepared for repair, reuse, resale, recycling, or disposal are also considered e-waste. In some developing countries, improper handling of e-waste can harm people's health and pollute the environment. Increased use of electronic products, driven by the Digital Revolution and technological advances like Bitcoin, has created a global e-waste problem. The fast increase in e-waste is caused by frequent new product releases, unnecessary purchases of electronics, short product life cycles, and low recycling rates. Parts of electronic devices, such as CPUs, may contain harmful materials like lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposing of e-waste can pose serious risks to the health of workers and their communities.

Definition

When an electronic product is no longer useful, it becomes electronic trash, or e-waste. As new electronic models are created, older ones often become outdated and are thrown away. E-waste is produced in large amounts because of fast technology development and high consumer demand for new products.

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides e-waste into ten categories. These include electronics that will be reused, sold, repaired, recycled, or thrown away. They also include reusable electronics that still work or can be fixed, and materials like copper, steel, and plastic that can be used again. The term "waste" refers to materials that are thrown away instead of being recycled, even if they were part of reuse or recycling efforts. Many people use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" to describe all old electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which are used in older computer monitors and televisions, are especially hard to recycle.

The Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development uses a different system with six categories for e-waste. These categories include products that vary in how long they last, their environmental impact, and how they are collected. About 70% of toxic waste in landfills comes from e-waste, even though e-waste makes up only 3% of all waste in landfills.

CRTs contain high amounts of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), which are needed for the screen to work. The EPA classifies discarded CRT monitors as "hazardous household waste." However, CRTs that are set aside for testing or recycling are not considered hazardous if they are recycled or sent for recycling under certain rules. CRTs are sometimes confused with DLP Rear Projection TVs, which have different materials and recycling processes.

In the European Union, e-waste is managed through the European Waste Catalogue (EWC), a system created by the European Council. Each EU member country uses this system to define hazardous e-waste. In the United Kingdom, this is done through the List of Wastes Directive. The EWC provides a general definition of hazardous e-waste, and waste operators must follow the Hazardous Waste Regulations for more details. Specific materials in the waste are also assessed using rules in Annex II and Annex III to determine if they are hazardous.

Some exporters mix hard-to-recycle or broken electronics with working devices to save money on separation and treatment costs. Some countries may expand the definition of "waste" electronics to protect their own markets from used equipment imported from other countries.

Recycling working electronics, such as laptops, desktops, and parts like RAM, can help pay for transporting large amounts of non-working devices, which are worth less or not valuable at all. A 2011 report about Ghana found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported there, 30% were new and 70% were used. Of the used electronics, 15% were not reused and were discarded. This is different from some unverified claims that 80% of the imported electronics were burned in unsafe conditions.

Bitcoin, a type of digital currency, creates large amounts of e-waste. As of May 2021, Bitcoin alone produced about 30.7 metric kilotons of e-waste, an amount similar to that of a small country like Denmark. This has raised concerns about the environmental impact of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.

Quantity

E-waste is the fastest-growing type of waste in the world. A 2024 study found that about 62 million tons of e-waste are created each year globally. Only 22.3% of this waste is officially recorded as being collected and recycled. The rest is often handled in an informal way in developing countries, which can harm people’s health and the environment. About $62 billion worth of valuable materials are lost each year because not enough recycling happens.

Rapid changes in technology, new products, lower prices, and planned obsolescence (when products are designed to stop working after a short time) lead to more e-waste. Few circular solutions (systems that reuse materials) exist. Before technical solutions can be used, legal rules, collection systems, and other services must be set up.

Parts of electronics, such as display units (like CRT, LCD, or LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory (DRAM or SRAM), and audio components, have different lifespans. Processors often become outdated quickly because software no longer works with them. Display units are frequently replaced even if they still work, due to changing preferences in wealthy countries. Modular smartphones (like the Phonebloks concept) could help reduce e-waste. These phones are designed so parts can be replaced, making them more durable and better for the environment. About 50 million tons of e-waste are made each year. In the USA, 30 million computers are thrown away yearly, and 100 million phones are discarded in Europe each year. Only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, and the rest ends up in landfills or incinerators.

A UNEP report titled Recycling – from e-waste to Resources says e-waste could increase by 500% in some countries, like India, over the next decade. The United States produces the most e-waste, about 3 million tons yearly. China produces about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate), second only to the United States. Even though China banned importing e-waste, it still receives large amounts from developed countries.

A 2023 study found that improper disposal and recycling of e-waste contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental problems. E-waste contains both harmful and valuable materials. It includes heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel, as well as chemicals like flame retardants and dioxins. These can pollute the environment during improper recycling or disposal, harming ecosystems and human health. Up to 60 different elements are found in electronics. The concentration of metals in e-waste is often higher than in regular ores, such as copper, aluminum, iron, gold, silver, and palladium. As of 2013, Apple had sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad). Some companies design phones to last only a short time so people will buy new ones. In the United States, about 70% of heavy metals in landfills come from discarded electronics.

There is agreement that more electronic devices are being thrown away, but there is disagreement about how dangerous this is compared to other waste types, like car parts. Some say limiting trade in used electronics could help, but others believe it might make the problem worse. A Motherboard article says efforts to stop trade have pushed honest companies out of the recycling business, causing unexpected problems.

In 2016, Asia had the most e-waste (18.2 million tons), followed by Europe (12.3 million tons), the Americas (11.3 million tons), Africa (2.2 million tons), and Oceania (0.7 million tons). Oceania had the highest e-waste per person (17.3 kg) but only 6% of its e-waste was collected and recycled. Europe had the second-highest e-waste per person (16.6 kg) but the highest collection rate (35%). The Americas generated 11.6 kg per person but collected only 17% of e-waste. Asia produced 4.2 kg per person, and Africa produced 1.9 kg per person, with limited data on its collection rates. Only 41 countries have official e-waste data. For 16 others, estimates were made. The fate of 34.1 million tons of e-waste is unknown. In countries without e-waste laws, it is often treated as general waste and landfilled or recycled with other materials. This can lead to unsafe handling of toxins and harm to workers. Despite rising e-waste, more countries are creating e-waste laws. Now, 66% of the world’s population lives in countries with e-waste regulations, up from 44% in 2014.

In 2019, 53.6 million tons of e-waste were made globally, with an average of 7.3 kg per person. This is expected to grow to 74 million tons by 2030. Asia still produces the most e-waste (24.9 million tons), followed by the Americas (13.1 million tons), Europe (12 million tons), and Africa and Oceania (2.9 million tons and 0.7 million tons, respectively). Europe had the highest e-waste per person (16.2 kg), followed by Oceania (16.1 kg) and the Americas. Africa had the lowest e-waste per person (2.5 kg). Europe collected and recycled 42.5% of its e-waste, and Asia collected 11.7%. The Americas and Oceania collected 9.4% and 8.8%, respectively. Africa collected only 0.9%. Of the 53.6 million tons of e-waste made globally, only 9.3% was officially collected and recycled. The fate of 44.3% of e-waste is unknown, and its impact varies by region. Since 2014, more countries have created e-waste laws, from 61 to 78. Much of the unrecorded e-waste is mixed with other waste, like plastic and metal, which may be recycled under poor conditions without proper cleanup.

In 2021, about 57.4 million tons of e-waste were made globally. In Europe, where e-waste is best studied, 11 of 72 electronic items in an average home are broken or not used. Each person in Europe also stores about 4 to 5 kg of unused electrical items yearly.

Global trade issues

Some people believe that stricter rules about electronic waste and worries about harm to the environment in poorer countries make it less likely for companies to clean up waste before sending it abroad. Critics of selling used electronics say it is still too easy for people who claim to recycle to send unsorted electronic waste to developing countries, such as China, India, and parts of Africa. This avoids the cost of removing harmful parts, like broken cathode ray tubes, which are hard and expensive to process. These countries have become places where large amounts of electronic waste are dumped. Even though some countries try to fix and reuse old equipment, in 2003, 90% of electronic waste ended up in landfills in developing nations. Supporters of international trade point to successful fair trade programs in other industries, where working together created jobs and brought affordable technology to countries with higher rates of repair and reuse.

Supporters of selling used electronics say that mining for metals like copper, silver, and gold in developing countries has increased. Recycling these materials from old devices is better for the environment than mining. They also say that fixing and reusing computers and televisions has become rare in wealthier nations, and that repairing old equipment has historically helped poorer countries grow.

South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China have found ways to keep value in used items, creating large industries around repairing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working cathode ray tubes. Repairing old items has sometimes hurt traditional manufacturing industries, and some people criticize the trade because of simple protectionism. Books like The Waste Makers by Vance Packard explain some of these criticisms, such as bans on importing working Pentium 4 laptops to China or Japan stopping the export of used electronics.

Opponents of sending used electronics to other countries say that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the value of materials recovered from e-waste lead to pollution, such as smelting copper wire. Electronic waste is often sent to countries in Africa and Asia, like China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya, for processing, sometimes without permission. Many used laptops are sent to developing nations as places to dump e-waste.

The Basel Convention was created in March 1989 to control the movement of dangerous waste across borders to protect countries that receive it. The United States has not joined the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, so it has few laws stopping the export of toxic waste. The Basel Action Network says about 80% of electronic waste sent to recycling centers in the U.S. is not recycled there but instead shipped to countries like China. This number is disputed by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.

A study by Arizona State University found that 87–88% of used computers imported were priced higher than the value of their parts, showing that the trade in used computers is mainly about reuse, not recycling.

Basel Convention Obstacles

The Basel Convention and Ban Amendment face challenges in how countries manage waste. One issue is that some countries do not report their waste activities because they have not signed the Basel Convention or rely on informal methods for recycling and collecting waste. According to the 2024 UNEP report from the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention, 27 countries did not submit reports from 2018 to 2022 about their waste management practices. These countries include Belize, Cambodia, Chile, Djibouti, Dominica, Somalia, Tonga, Mauritius, Nepal, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Cameroon, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic, Liechtenstein, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Samoa, Republic of Korea, Uruguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia.

Another challenge is unclear language in reports and laws. At the sixteenth meeting, 68 out of 126 countries did not clearly define what counts as illegal waste trafficking. E-waste is sometimes exported as "used materials," which creates gaps in the Basel Convention's rules and makes it harder to stop harmful waste flows.

The Basel Convention also places the responsibility for monitoring waste and punishing violations on individual countries. At the sixteenth meeting, 66 countries had rules to return hazardous waste, and 52 countries treated illegal waste trafficking as a crime. These statistics include all hazardous waste, not just e-waste. However, these challenges allow low- and middle-income countries to receive large amounts of e-waste, which can harm people's health.

Some people argue that trade in used electronics helps poorer countries by providing jobs, affordable products, and internet access. For example, Haiti is poor and near New York, but more e-waste is sent to Asia than to Haiti. In some places, people repair and reuse electronics, which some describe as sustainable.

Others argue that e-waste is often processed in unsafe ways in developing countries. For example, burning electronics to melt plastics and remove metals releases harmful chemicals like dioxins and furans into the air, creating smog and polluting water sources.

In 2008, Greenpeace stopped a container of e-waste from being sent from the U.S. to China. Concerns about e-waste exports have been reported in countries like India, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria.

A study by the CWIT project found that in Europe, only 35% of e-waste was officially recycled in 2012. The remaining 65% was either exported, recycled in unsafe ways, scavenged for parts, or thrown away.

Guiyu, a town in China, is a major e-waste processing site. It was once an agricultural area but became a recycling hub in the 1990s. Thousands of workers there dismantle electronics, burn parts, and use harmful chemicals. This has caused pollution and health problems, including high levels of toxic metals like lead and mercury. Similar e-waste processing sites exist in Nigeria, Ghana, and India.

Bitcoin mining also increases e-waste. Each Bitcoin transaction creates about 272 grams of waste, and in 2020, Bitcoin generated 112.5 million grams of waste. This is more than the waste produced by major financial systems like VISA. The fast pace of technological changes in Bitcoin mining, driven by the need for powerful computers, contributes to this waste.

Efficiency in computer chips, as described by Koomey's Law, improves over time, but this does not reduce the overall e-waste created by Bitcoin mining.

Environmental impact

The process of taking apart and throwing away old electronics in developing countries causes harm to the environment. Chemicals and pollution from these activities can enter water, soil, air, and even the bodies of animals and humans. These pollutants can be found in the food people and animals eat, in drinking water, and in the ground.

A study in Guiyu, China, found the following:

• Air pollution included dioxins, which were 100 times higher than levels measured before.
• Cancer-causing chemicals in duck ponds and rice fields were above safe levels. Heavy metals like lead, copper, nickel, and cadmium in rice fields also exceeded safe limits.
• Road dust in the area had lead levels more than 300 times higher than in a nearby village and copper levels more than 100 times higher.

In Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, e-waste pollution affects nearly everyone. This area is one of the largest places in Africa where old electronics are dumped and processed. Each year, about 215,000 tons of used electronics from Western Europe are brought here. Because homes, businesses, and factories are close together, Agbogbloshie is considered one of the world's 10 most dangerous places for pollution. Improper disposal of e-waste causes chemicals to enter soil, water, and air, spreading pollution and increasing the risk of harm to people and nature.

A study in Agbogbloshie found lead levels in soil as high as 18,125 parts per million. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets a limit of 400 parts per million for soil in play areas and 1200 parts per million in other areas. Workers in this area often burn parts of electronics and wires to recover copper, releasing harmful chemicals like lead, dioxins, and furans into the environment.

Researcher Brett Robinson, a professor at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warns that wind in Southeast China spreads toxic particles from open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta, a region with 45 million people. These chemicals enter the "soil-crop-food pathway," a major way people are exposed to heavy metals. These chemicals do not break down easily and stay in the environment for a long time, increasing the risk of harm.

In Chachoengsao, a farming area near Bangkok, villagers lost their main water source due to e-waste dumping. In late 2017, a Chinese-run factory started bringing in old electronics like broken computers and wires for recycling. These items contain harmful metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury. When processed, they release dangerous fumes and chemicals. A local resident said the factory's pollution caused foul-smelling water and skin problems. Water tests found high levels of toxic metals like iron, manganese, lead, nickel, and sometimes arsenic and cadmium. People who used water from shallow wells reported health issues.

The chemical makeup of e-waste depends on the age and type of the item. Most e-waste contains metals like copper, aluminum, and iron, which may be covered in or mixed with plastics and ceramics. E-waste harms the environment, and it is important to dispose of it using an R2 certified recycling facility.

Information security

Old computers or devices that are no longer used may still have data that can be read and might include information that was private to the people who used the device before. Also, simply deleting the data or using a factory reset might not fully remove the data. This means that the data could still be found by people who act in an unethical or harmful way, which might lead to a data breach.

A plan for recycling these devices can help protect information security by making sure that the private information is properly erased. This can include steps such as reformatting the storage device, replacing the data with random information to make it impossible to recover, or physically destroying the storage device, such as by shredding it, to ensure all data is completely removed. For example, on many computer systems, deleting a file might not actually remove the data from the storage device, which means the information could still be found using regular methods.

Recycling

Recycling helps reduce the release of harmful materials into the environment and prevents the loss of natural resources. Local governments and communities must support recycling efforts. Less than 20% of electronic waste is officially recycled, while 80% ends up in landfills or is informally recycled. Informal recycling often occurs in developing countries, where workers handle waste by hand and are exposed to dangerous substances like mercury, lead, and cadmium. Although electronic waste contains valuable materials, very little of it is officially recycled, leading to waste.

There are three main methods for extracting valuable metals from electronic waste: hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and hydro-pyrometallurgical methods. Each method has benefits and drawbacks, and all produce toxic waste.

A major challenge is recycling printed circuit boards from electronic waste. These boards contain valuable metals like gold, silver, and platinum, as well as common metals like copper, iron, and aluminum. One way to process e-waste is by melting circuit boards, burning cables to recover copper, and using acid leaching to separate valuable metals. Traditional methods involve mechanical shredding, but these are not very efficient. Other methods, such as cryogenic decomposition, are being studied. In 2023, a new material called AF aerogel made from protein fibrils was developed to help recover gold from circuit boards.

Properly disposing of or reusing electronics can help avoid health problems, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and create jobs.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages electronics recyclers to become certified by showing an independent auditor that they follow safety and recycling standards. Two certifications, Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards, are supported by the EPA. These programs ensure that recyclers meet strict environmental standards, promote reuse, and protect human health. Certified recyclers are regularly checked to make sure they continue meeting these standards.

Some U.S. retailers allow consumers to recycle old electronics. The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) provides a recycling locator to help consumers find safe recycling programs. These programs use certified recyclers to ensure electronics are handled responsibly. Research shows that 58% of consumers know where to recycle old electronics, and the industry wants more people to be aware of this. Over 5,000 recycling locations across the U.S. are operated by manufacturers and retailers, with a goal to recycle one billion pounds of electronics annually by 2016.

The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge, started by the EPA in 2012, encourages electronics manufacturers and retailers to recycle used electronics responsibly. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC) works to protect health and the environment by holding manufacturers accountable for recycling electronics. While recycling efforts have improved, challenges remain, such as ensuring recycling standards are followed and managing waste that has value. Stakeholders agree that better accountability and efficiency are needed to improve recycling systems.

The Certified Electronics Recycler program sets standards for safe and responsible recycling. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on health and environmental justice issues linked to harmful materials in electronics. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) promotes better recycling practices and fair trade principles for electronics. The Take Back My TV project, run by the ETBC, evaluates television manufacturers based on their recycling practices.

Efforts have also been made to address unsafe conditions in e-waste recycling in U.S. prisons. A report by the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and other groups highlights how inmates are exposed to harmful materials while dismantling e-waste in prisons without proper safety measures.

In Argentina, a group called Argentina's Cyber Dumpster Divers collects e-waste and repurposes it into new items like cameras and video game consoles. This work became especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In many developed countries, electronic waste is first broken down into parts for processing.

Financial incentives for electronic waste recycling

Governments and organizations use financial incentives to encourage people to collect, recycle, and properly dispose of electronic waste (e-waste). These tools help reduce informal recycling, recover valuable materials like gold, silver, and copper, and promote safe waste management. Reports show that only 22.3% of e-waste was collected and recycled globally in 2022.

Deposit-refund systems (DRS) charge a fee when people buy electronics, which is returned when the device is returned at the end of its life. Studies show these systems can increase recycling rates compared to no incentives. However, their success depends on the type of waste; for example, deposit systems for batteries have had limited success in improving collection.

Some governments give money to certified recyclers through subsidies, grants, or tax breaks. In Taiwan, combining financial help with public education has improved recycling results and reduced reliance on informal methods. Research also shows subsidies can make formal recycling systems work more efficiently.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) requires companies to manage the end-of-life disposal of their products. International reviews say EPR shifts waste management costs from governments to manufacturers and encourages better product design. In the European Union, EPR is enforced through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, which requires companies to fund the collection and recycling of electronics.

Investing in e-waste treatment facilities, such as certified dismantling plants and collection systems, improves formal recycling rates. Areas with strong infrastructure rely less on informal recycling, reducing environmental and health risks from unsafe processing.

In the European Union, the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive requires EPR and sets rules for collecting, reusing, and recycling e-waste. However, progress varies among member states, and many struggle to meet recycling targets.

In the United States, e-waste policies are managed by individual states. Some states use producer-funded take-back systems, host collection events, or offer rebates and vouchers to encourage recycling.

Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan use EPR or deposit-refund systems to reduce informal recycling and improve material recovery. Studies show regulated take-back systems collect more e-waste than unregulated methods.

Financial incentives can boost participation in formal e-waste collection and reduce harm from informal recycling. However, challenges remain, such as uneven enforcement, poor infrastructure, and illegal e-waste flows that escape formal systems.

Proper e-waste recycling helps recover valuable materials like metals and rare earth elements, reduces the need to extract new resources, creates jobs, and supports circular economy goals. Recycling turns old electronics into useful resources, helping manage materials sustainably and lowering the environmental impact of electronics use.

Repair as waste reduction method

There are several ways to reduce the harm caused by recycling electronic waste. One major problem is that many electronic devices stop working after a short time. Two main reasons cause this issue. First, people often buy cheap products that are not built to last long. Second, some companies design products to be replaced often, sometimes by limiting access to repair tools, manuals, or updates, or by making products stop working after a certain time.

People are becoming upset about this situation, which has led to a growing movement focused on repairing items instead of throwing them away. This movement often happens at a local level, such as through community repair events or "restart parties" organized by groups like the Restart Project.

In the United States, farmers are leading efforts to fix equipment because they cannot find repair guides, special tools, or replacement parts for modern farming machines. However, this movement also affects other areas, such as when companies like Apple limit repair options for their products. Companies often argue that allowing repairs could create safety risks if done incorrectly.

A simple way to reduce electronic waste is to sell or give away old electronics instead of throwing them away. Improper disposal of e-waste is becoming more dangerous as the amount of waste increases. Because of this, companies like Apple and Samsung now offer recycling programs for old devices. Recycling helps reuse valuable parts inside electronics, which saves energy and reduces the need to mine new materials or make new parts. Many communities have local recycling programs that can be found online by searching for "recycle electronics" along with the name of the city or area.

Cloud services help people store data online, which can be accessed from anywhere without needing physical storage devices. This method allows for large storage space at a low cost. Using cloud storage makes it easier to avoid buying new storage devices, which helps reduce the amount of electronic waste created.

Electronic waste classification

The market offers many types of electrical products. To organize these items, it is important to group them into clear and useful categories. These categories can help decide the best way to dispose of the products. Creating these groups helps describe electronic waste, or e-waste. However, these groups do not include details about products that are not harmful to the environment. At the same time, the groups should not be too broad because different countries may interpret them differently. The UNU-KEYs system closely follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. This is an international system used worldwide to classify items for customs purposes.

Electronic waste substances

Some parts from old computers can be used again when making new computers. Other parts are broken down into metals that can be used in different ways, such as building structures, making utensils, and creating jewelry. Some materials found in large amounts are epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Elements found in small amounts are cadmium, mercury, and thallium. Elements found in trace amounts are americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. The following are ordinary applications:

Human health and safety

People who live near e-waste recycling sites, even if they do not work with e-waste, may be exposed to harmful substances through food, water, and the environment. This happens because they can come into contact with polluted air, water, soil, dust, and food sources. The main ways people are exposed are by breathing in polluted air, eating contaminated food or water, or touching polluted materials.

Studies show that people living near e-waste recycling sites take in more heavy metals daily and have higher levels of harmful substances in their bodies. Children and pregnant women are especially at risk. Health problems linked to e-waste exposure include mental health issues, trouble thinking clearly, and physical health problems. DNA damage was found more often in people exposed to e-waste compared to those in areas without e-waste. This DNA damage can lead to genetic changes or cancer if it affects certain genes. Workers who directly handle e-waste, such as by breaking apart devices, burning materials, or using strong chemicals, are at the highest risk of harm.

Prenatal exposure to e-waste can harm newborns. In Guiyu, a major e-waste recycling site in China, higher levels of lead in newborns’ blood were linked to parents’ work in e-waste recycling and how long mothers lived in Guiyu or worked there during pregnancy. Newborns from Guiyu also had higher levels of a protein called metallothionein, which shows exposure to toxic metals like cadmium. High levels of another chemical, PFOA, in mothers from Guiyu were linked to slower growth in their babies and other health issues.

Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling can also lead to problems like stillbirth, low birth weight, and lower scores on tests that check a baby’s health at birth. These children may also face long-term issues like learning difficulties or behavior problems later in life.

Children are more vulnerable to e-waste exposure because of their small size, faster metabolism, and larger skin surface area compared to their weight. They are also exposed in more ways, such as through skin contact, eating with dirty hands, or bringing polluted materials home. Studies show children in e-waste areas have eight times the health risk of adult workers. For example, one study found children in Guiyu had blood lead levels nearly 1.5 times higher than children in areas without e-waste. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) considers blood lead levels above 5 μg/dL as a health concern.

Exposure to e-waste can harm children’s health. Toxins in e-waste, such as lead, mercury, and other heavy metals, can lower IQ, harm thinking skills, and increase cancer risk. Some children in e-waste areas have reduced lung function, trouble with blood clotting, hearing loss, and weaker immune responses to vaccines. For example, boys aged 8–9 years at an e-waste site had lower lung capacity and changes in their body’s ability to fight damage caused by toxins.

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) lists dangers for e-waste workers, such as injuries from crushing objects, exposure to harmful energy, and contact with toxic metals. OSHA also identifies chemicals in electronics, like lead and mercury, that can harm workers. These chemicals have set limits for safe exposure levels in the U.S.

Informal e-recycling refers to small workshops with little automation or safety equipment. Formal e-recycling uses machines and follows safety rules to sort materials and reduce pollution. Workers in formal facilities may still face health risks, as studies in France and Sweden found workers exposed to high levels of lead, mercury, and other harmful chemicals.

Informal e-recycling often happens in low-income or developing countries. For example, a 2025 report by Transparency International highlighted how informal recycling practices in these areas expose workers and children to dangerous conditions.

E-waste legislative frameworks

The European Union (EU) has created two laws to deal with electronic waste. The first law, called the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive), was introduced in 2003. Its main goal was to help member states recycle and reuse electronic waste. This law was updated in 2008 and took effect in 2014. Another law, the Directive on the restriction of certain harmful substances in electrical and electronic equipment, was also introduced in 2003. This law was revised in 2012. In Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia passed a law about batteries in 2010 and a law about managing electronic waste in 2012. Serbia created a national waste management plan from 2010 to 2019 to handle special waste, including electronic waste. Montenegro passed a law in 2010 aiming to collect 4 kilograms of electronic waste per person each year by 2020. Albania has a draft law from 2011 focusing on how electronic equipment is designed. Bosnia and Herzegovina still does not have a law to manage electronic waste. In Asia, Thailand banned electronic waste imports in 2020, and China did the same in 2018. These rules have had some success, but some gaps remain that allow people to avoid following them.

As of 2024, 81 countries worldwide have created policies, laws, or rules to manage electronic waste. However, many countries are not following these rules properly. In regions like Asia and Africa, some policies are not legally required and only provide general guidance. This makes it difficult to manage electronic waste effectively. For example, research by the EU shows that laws against electronic waste have led to more electronic waste being sent to other countries.

Solving the E-waste Problem is an organization part of the United Nations University. It was created to find solutions to issues caused by electronic waste. Many groups involved in making, reusing, and recycling electronic equipment, along with government agencies, non-profit organizations, and UN groups, are part of this effort. The organization encourages all people involved in electronic waste to work together, using a clear, scientific, and practical approach to solve the problem.

The European Commission (EC) of the EU classifies waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as waste from devices like refrigerators, televisions, and mobile phones. In 2005, the EU reported 9 million tons of electronic waste, and by 2020, this number had grown to 12 million tons. If not handled properly, electronic waste can harm the environment and cause serious health problems. Disposing of this waste requires careful planning and proper facilities. Making these products also uses large amounts of natural resources, such as aluminum, gold, copper, and silicon, which can damage the environment and create pollution.

Because of the harm electronic waste can cause, the EU created two laws: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive. The WEEE Directive was introduced in 2003 to help recycle electronic waste. It allowed free collection programs for consumers. The EU updated this law in 2008 because electronic waste was growing quickly. A new version of the WEEE Directive was introduced in 2012 and took effect in 2014. In 2017, the EU proposed a new rule to monitor the amount of electronic waste. This rule requires each member state to track and report data about electronic waste in their country.

Annex III of the WEEE Directive focuses on reviewing the time needed to collect waste and setting specific goals for each country. In 2012, the EU passed the WEEE Directive (Directive 2012/19/EU). More information about progress with this law can be found in official reports. In 2014, the EU revised the WEEE Directive again. Details about the older version of the law can be found in another report.

In 2003, the EU also introduced the RoHS Directive, which limits the use of harmful materials like lead, mercury, and certain chemicals in electronic equipment. This law was updated in 2008 and again in 2013. In 2017, the EU adjusted the law based on an impact assessment and proposed new rules. These changes were officially published in 2017.

Each year, the EU deals with about 800,000 tons of batteries from the automotive industry, 190,000 tons from industrial batteries, and 160,000 tons from consumer batteries. These batteries are used in many household products. Proper collection and recycling of batteries are important to prevent harmful materials from polluting the environment and water sources. Many parts of batteries can be recycled safely. To manage battery waste, the EU introduced the Batteries Directive, which aims to improve collection and recycling processes. This law also restricts the production and sale of batteries that contain harmful materials. The directive encourages the use of batteries that are safe for the environment. In 2020, the EU proposed a new rule to ensure that batteries sold in Europe are recyclable, sustainable, and non-hazardous.

In 2006, the EU adopted the Batteries Directive and updated it in 2013. This law was introduced on September 6, 2006, and is called Directive 2006/66/EC. A summary of battery and accumulator laws can be found in official resources. The effectiveness of the Batteries Directive can be reviewed through an evaluation process.

Potential Future Recommendations

To improve policies and actions that reduce e-waste and its effects, several steps can be taken. Teaching the public about the dangers e-waste poses to the environment and human health can help people reduce their own e-waste. This effort may also involve electronic companies, as raising awareness could lead to the creation of longer-lasting, more sustainable technologies. Education can also be shared with people who informally recycle e-waste to help them understand the health risks they face.

Using clearer terms for used and waste materials can help fix problems in current rules, such as those in the Basel Convention and Ban Amendment.

Governments and businesses can support formal recycling programs to protect workers' health while keeping their jobs secure. This is especially important in low- and middle-income countries, where many people rely on informal recycling to support their families, such as in parts of Ghana. It is also important to ensure that low-income areas receive the same waste management improvements as other regions.

To reduce the health risks caused by e-waste and its recycling, medical programs and resources should be improved or started in areas where people are exposed to high levels of e-waste pollution.