The Amazon rainforest covers an area of 3,000,000 square kilometers (1,200,000 square miles) and is the largest rainforest on Earth. It contains the most diverse tropical rainforest, making up more than half of all rainforests worldwide. The Amazon spans parts of nine countries, with Brazil holding the largest share (60%), followed by Peru (13%), Colombia (10%), and smaller areas in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia (6%), Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Over one-third of the Amazon is officially recognized as indigenous territory, including more than 3,344 territories. Historically, indigenous people in the Amazon have used the forest for food, shelter, water, materials, and medicines. The forest is also important for their culture and beliefs. However, in recent years, the Amazon has been damaged by activities such as cattle farming and soybean farming. Soybean farming has become a major cause of deforestation, with production increasing by more than 300% in some periods. Although often grown on land previously cleared for cattle, soy farming directly destroys forests. A rule called the 2006 Soy Moratorium, which banned buying soy from newly deforested areas, is now weakening.

Deforestation rates are lower in indigenous territories because legal land protections have reduced deforestation by 75% in Peru. By 2022, about 26% of the Amazon was considered deforested or highly damaged. According to the Council on Foreign Relations, 300,000 square miles of the Amazon have been lost. The Food and Agriculture Organization reports that about 10 million hectares of forests worldwide are lost each year. Between 2010 and 2020, the global net loss of forests was 4.7 million hectares per year.

Cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon is the main cause of deforestation, responsible for about 80% of all deforestation in the region. This makes it the largest single cause of deforestation globally, contributing to about 14% of the world’s annual deforestation. Government tax revenue has supported much of the agriculture causing deforestation. By 1995, 70% of previously forested land in the Amazon and 91% of land deforested since 1970 had been turned into cattle ranches. Other causes of deforestation include large-scale farming of crops like soy and palm oil, as well as small-scale farming encouraged by government land policies. In 2011, soy farming was estimated to cause about 15% of deforestation in the Amazon.

In 2018, satellite data showed the highest rate of deforestation in the Amazon in a decade, with about 7,900 square kilometers (3,100 square miles) destroyed between August 2017 and July 2018. The states of Mato Grosso and Pará had the most deforestation during this time. Illegal logging was cited as a cause by Brazil’s environment minister, while others pointed to agricultural expansion. Scientists warn that the Amazon may reach a point where it can no longer produce enough rainfall to support itself.

In May 2025, research from the University of Maryland’s Global Land Analysis and Discovery (GLAD) Lab, shared through the World Resources Institute’s Global Forest Watch platform, found that global forest loss reached record highs in 2024. Loss of tropical primary forests reached 6.7 million hectares—nearly twice the area lost in 2023 and about the size of Panama. Brazil was responsible for 42% of all tropical primary forest loss, mainly due to fires worsened by the country’s worst drought on record. Fires caused 66% of Brazil’s forest loss in 2024, a more than sixfold increase from 2023. The Amazon experienced its highest tree cover loss since 2016.

History

Before European arrival, some parts of the Amazon rainforest had many people living there and were farmed. However, European colonization in the 16th century, motivated by the search for gold and later by the rubber industry, caused the population to drop because of diseases and forced labor. This led to the rainforest growing back.

Until the 1970s, reaching the interior of the rainforest was difficult because there were few roads. The forest remained mostly untouched, except for areas near rivers that were partially cleared. Deforestation increased after highways were built to go deep into the forest, such as the Trans-Amazonian Highway in 1972.

In some parts of the Amazon, poor soil made farming unprofitable. A major change in deforestation happened in the 1960s when settlers started farming inside the forest. Their methods included growing crops and using the slash-and-burn technique. However, soil fertility decreased and weeds spread, making it hard for settlers to manage their farms.

In the Peruvian Amazon, areas like the Urarina Chambira River Basin have low soil productivity. This forces indigenous horticulturalists to keep clearing new land. Cattle farming became a major part of Amazon colonization because it required less work, provided steady profits, and used land owned by the government. While some claimed land privatization would help reforest, it was criticized for possibly causing more deforestation and ignoring the rights of indigenous people, who often lack official land titles. A law called Law 840 faced strong opposition and was later removed because it was considered unconstitutional.

Illegal deforestation in the Amazon rose in 2015 after many years of decline, mainly due to demand for products like palm oil. Brazilian farmers clear land to meet growing needs for crops such as palm oil and soy. Deforestation releases large amounts of carbon, and if current rates continue, forests worldwide could disappear in 100 years. The Brazilian government started the RED program to reduce deforestation and forest degradation, offering education and financial help to African countries.

In January 2019, Brazil’s president, Jair Bolsonaro, issued an order giving the agriculture ministry control over certain Amazon lands. This decision was supported by cattle ranchers and mining companies but criticized for threatening indigenous communities and increasing Brazil’s role in global climate change.

Reports from 2021 showed a 22% rise in deforestation compared to the previous year, reaching the highest level since 2006.

Causes of deforestation

The deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is influenced by many factors at local, national, and international levels. People cut down trees for reasons like raising cattle, harvesting valuable hardwoods, creating land for farming (especially soybeans), building roads, and collecting medicinal plants. In Brazil, deforestation is linked to an economic model that focuses on gaining more land instead of improving productivity. It is important to know that illegal logging is a common practice during deforestation.

Deforestation in the Amazon is complex and varies by country and region. For example, in Peru, deforestation happens because of a mix of market demands and both legal and illegal activities, such as logging, cattle ranching, palm oil farming, mining, and growing coca plants.

According to a 2004 World Bank report and a 2009 Greenpeace study, cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon, supported by international beef and leather markets, is responsible for about 80% of deforestation in the region. This is about 14% of the world’s total annual deforestation, making it the biggest cause of forest loss globally. A 2006 report from the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization said that 70% of land once covered by forests in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, is now used for raising livestock. The 2019 European Union-Mercosur Free Trade Agreement, which creates one of the world’s largest trade areas, has been criticized by environmental groups and indigenous rights advocates. They say the agreement could increase deforestation by expanding markets for Brazilian beef.

During the government of Jair Bolsonaro, some environmental laws were weakened, and funding and staff for key agencies were reduced. Deforestation in the Amazon increased during the early months of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (INPE) reported that deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose by more than 50% in the first three months of 2020 compared to the same time in 2019.

In October 2024, Brazil’s environmental agency, IBAMA, fined cattle ranches and meatpacking companies, including JBS SA (the world’s largest meat packer), 365 million reais (US$64 million) for their role in illegal deforestation. These fines were given to companies accused of raising or buying cattle from land that was cleared without permission.

Deforestation in the Amazon has also happened because farmers clear land for large-scale farming. A 2006 study using NASA satellite data found that farming for crops like soybeans became a major cause of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. This change in land use has affected the region’s climate. Researchers found that in 2004, a peak year for deforestation, over 20% of forests in the state of Mato Grosso were turned into farmland. In 2005, when soybean prices dropped by more than 25%, some areas in Mato Grosso saw fewer large-scale deforestation events. This suggests that changes in crop prices, such as for beef or timber, might influence future land use in the region.

Soybean farming, mainly for export and to make biodiesel and animal feed, has been a major cause of forest loss in the Amazon. As soy prices rose, farmers expanded into forested areas. However, a private sector agreement called the Soy Moratorium helped reduce deforestation linked to soy farming. In 2006, major companies like Cargill agreed not to buy soybeans from recently deforested areas in the Brazilian Amazon. Before the moratorium, 30% of new soy fields were linked to deforestation. After eight years, a 2015 study found that even though soy production expanded by 1.3 million hectares, only about 1% of this growth came from cutting down forests. Farmers instead chose to plant crops on already cleared land.

The needs of soy farmers have also influenced controversial transportation projects in the Amazon. The Belém-Brasília highway (built in 1958) and the Cuiabá-Porto Velho highway (built in 1968) were the only paved roads in the Legal Amazon region before the late 1990s. These roads are part of the "arc of deforestation," the main area of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. The Belém-Brasília highway attracted nearly two million settlers in its first 20 years. Its success in opening up the forest led to more roads being built, causing a wave of settlement that greatly impacted the forest.

Logging in deforestation refers to cutting down trees for commercial use, mainly for the timber industry. Deforestation is the permanent removal of forests and vegetation, which can harm the environment, people, and the economy.

The logging process includes these steps:

• Tree selection: Loggers choose trees based on their type, size, and value. Trees like mahogany, teak, and oak are often targeted.
• Access and infrastructure: Loggers build roads and trails in the forest to reach trees and move equipment.
• Clearing vegetation: Loggers remove smaller trees and plants near target trees to make it easier to work.
• Tree felling: Selected trees are cut down with chainsaws or machines.
• Timber extraction: Logs are removed from the forest and prepared for transport.
• Log transportation: Logs are moved to processing areas by trucks, boats, or helicopters.
• Processing and use: Logs are turned into wood products like lumber, plywood, or paper for industries like construction and furniture.

Logging harms forests by reducing biodiversity. It destroys habitats for many plants and animals, making ecosystems less able to survive changes. Trees help reduce climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.

Loss rates

During the early 2000s, deforestation in the Amazon rainforest increased, with 27,423 square kilometers (10,588 square miles) of forest lost each year in 2004. Between 2004 and 2012, the rate of forest loss generally slowed, though there were increases in 2008, 2013, and 2015.

Recent data shows that forest loss is rising again. Between August 2017 and July 2018, about 7,900 square kilometers (3,100 square miles) of forest were cleared in Brazil, a 13.7% increase compared to the previous year. This was the largest area cleared since 2008. In June 2019, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 88% compared to June 2018. In January 2020, deforestation more than doubled compared to January 2019. Despite these increases, human impact on the Amazon region is still less than in other parts of Brazil.

In August 2019, 30,901 fires were reported in the Amazon, three times higher than the previous year. The number of fires dropped by one-third in September and reached about 10,000 by October 7. It is important to note that deforestation has more serious effects than burning. The National Institute for Space Research (INPE) in Brazil estimated that 7,747 square kilometers (2,991 square miles) of the Amazon were cleared during the first half of 2019. INPE later reported that deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon reached a 12-year high between August 2019 and July 2020.

Deforestation data in Brazil is collected yearly by the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) using satellite images taken during the dry season in the Amazon by the Landsat satellite. These estimates may focus only on the Amazon rainforest and might not include the loss of natural fields or savannah in the Amazon region.

The values are based on estimated forest loss and are not directly measured.

Impacts

Deforestation and loss of biodiversity in the Amazon rainforest have created serious risks of changes that cannot be reversed. Studies using models suggest that deforestation may be nearing a critical point, called a "tipping point," where large areas of the rainforest could turn into dry grasslands or deserts. This change could cause major problems for the global climate. Reaching this tipping point might lead to a cycle of harm to plants, animals, and ecosystems in the region. If this tipping point is not stopped, it could cause serious harm to the economy, natural resources, and services provided by ecosystems. A study published in Nature Climate Change in 2022 showed that more than three out of four areas in the Amazon rainforest have become less able to recover from damage since the early 2000s. This weak recovery could lead to forest dieback, which would harm biodiversity, carbon storage, and climate change efforts.

To keep a high level of biodiversity, research suggests that the Amazon should maintain at least 40% forest cover.

Deforestation and other types of ecosystem damage, such as the destruction of peatbogs, can have many effects. These actions reduce the ability of land to absorb carbon dioxide and increase emissions through causes like wildfires, changes in land use, and harm to ecosystems. These effects can disrupt the natural processes that help ecosystems absorb carbon, leading to stress and imbalance.

Historically, the Amazon Basin has acted as a major carbon sink, absorbing about 25% of the carbon dioxide taken in by land on Earth. However, a scientific review in 2021 showed that the Amazon is now releasing more greenhouse gases than it absorbs. This change is linked to climate change and human activities, such as wildfires, land use changes, and deforestation. These activities release substances that may cause overall warming. Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns also affect how the forest functions, making it harder for the forest to absorb carbon dioxide.

A study led by Elena Shevliakova and Stephen Pacala found that completely clearing the Amazon would raise global temperatures by 0.25 degrees. In 2023, despite deforestation, the Amazon still held more than 150 billion metric tons of carbon.

Deforestation in the Amazon has greatly affected Brazil’s freshwater supply, especially for the agricultural industry, which has contributed to clearing the forest. In 2005, some parts of the Amazon experienced the worst drought in over 100 years. Two main reasons for this are:

• The rainforest helps create rainfall across Brazil, even in faraway areas. Deforestation made droughts in 2005, 2010, and 2015–2016 worse.
• The rainforest helps create rainfall and store water, which supplies rivers that provide freshwater to Brazil and other countries.

In 2019, scientists found that if deforestation continues at current rates, Brazil’s temperature could rise by 1.45 degrees. This increase might lead to more human deaths, higher electricity needs, lower food production, less water, and the loss of biodiversity, especially in tropical areas. Local warming could also cause species to move to new areas, including those that spread diseases. The researchers said deforestation is already contributing to rising temperatures.

Other research suggests that if the Amazon is completely deforested, the region—including 7 million square kilometers across 9 Brazilian states and 8 other countries—would become mostly uninhabitable. Temperatures would rise by more than 4.5 degrees, and rainfall would drop by a quarter.

More than one-third of the Amazon is set aside as Indigenous territory, covering over 4,466 officially recognized areas. Until 2015, about 8% of deforestation in the Amazon happened in areas where Indigenous people live, while 88% occurred in places outside Indigenous territories and protected areas, even though these areas make up less than half of the Amazon. Indigenous communities have relied on the forest for food, shelter, water, materials, fuel, and medicine. The forest is also culturally and spiritually important to them. Deforestation tends to be lower in Indigenous territories, even though pressures to clear land for other uses still exist.

During deforestation, many Indigenous tribes have faced mistreatment and abuse. Encroachment by loggers on Indigenous lands has caused conflicts that have led to deaths. Some uncontacted tribes have left the forest and interacted with outsiders due to threats. When uncontacted tribes meet outsiders, they are at risk of diseases they have no immunity to, which can cause entire tribes to decline rapidly.

There has been a long struggle over control of Indigenous lands in the Amazon, mainly involving the Brazilian government. Part of the demand for these lands comes from efforts to improve Brazil’s economy. Some people, including ranchers and land speculators, have tried to take over these lands for personal gain. In early 2019, Brazil’s new president, Jair Bolsonaro, issued an order allowing the agriculture ministry to regulate land occupied by Indigenous tribes in the Amazon.

In the past, mining was allowed in the territory of the Yanomami, an isolated Indigenous group. This led to health problems, including tuberculosis. If their lands are used for more development, many tribal communities could be forced to leave, risking lives. In addition to harming Indigenous people, exploiting the forest would deplete resources they need for daily life.

Research in the Peruvian Amazon shows that legally recognizing Indigenous land ownership greatly reduces deforestation. Programs that give Indigenous communities legal control over their land led to a 75% drop in deforestation in two years. These policies help Indigenous groups protect their land from harm and are a strong tool for fighting deforestation.

Between 2013 and 2021, deforestation in Indigenous territories in the Brazilian Amazon increased by 129%, mainly due to illegal mining. This activity harms biodiversity and weakens the cultural and environmental health of these areas. Because of relaxed environmental rules in Brazil during the second half of the 2010s, deforestation in Indigenous territories rose 195% between 2019 and 2021 compared to the previous six years. Also, 59% of carbon emissions from Indigenous territories between 2013 and 2021 happened in the last three years of the study.

The Yanomami people in Brazil have suffered from illegal gold mining in their lands. Mining has caused deforestation, polluted water, and increased malaria cases among the Yanomami. President Lula’s government has taken steps to address these problems.

Efforts to stop and reverse deforestation

On September 16, 2008, Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg announced that the Norwegian government would donate US$1 billion to the Amazon Fund. This fund would support projects to reduce deforestation in the Amazon rainforest.

In September 2015, Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff told the United Nations that Brazil had reduced deforestation in the Amazon by 82%. She also shared Brazil’s goals for the next 15 years, including stopping illegal deforestation, restoring 120,000 km (46,000 sq mi) of forest, and rehabilitating 150,000 km (58,000 sq mi) of damaged farmland.

In August 2017, Brazilian President Michel Temer removed the protected status of an Amazon nature reserve in Pará and Amapá states. This area was about the same size as Denmark.

In April 2019, an Ecuadorian court ordered the end of oil exploration in a 1,800-square-kilometer (690 sq mi) area of the Amazon rainforest.

In May 2019, eight former Brazilian environment ministers warned that deforestation in the Amazon was increasing under President Jair Bolsonaro’s leadership. In September 2019, Carlos Nobre, a climate expert, said that if deforestation continued at the same rate, the Amazon could reach a critical point within 20 to 30 years. This might cause large parts of the forest to turn into dry savanna, especially in the south and north.

Bolsonaro refused to accept help from European leaders on Amazon deforestation, calling it Brazil’s internal matter. He supported opening more Amazon areas for mining and discussed a joint development plan with U.S. President Donald Trump.

Brazil’s Economy Minister, Paulo Guedes, said other countries should pay Brazil for the oxygen produced in its forests but used elsewhere.

In late August 2019, after global criticism and warnings about fires, Brazil’s government, led by Bolsonaro, took steps to fight the fires. These included a 60-day ban on burning forests, sending 44,000 soldiers to help, receiving four firefighting planes from Chile, accepting $12 million in aid from the UK, and being more open to G7 support. Bolsonaro also called for a Latin American meeting to discuss Amazon protection.

On November 2, 2021, more than 100 countries, representing about 85% of the world’s forests, agreed to stop deforestation by 2030 at the COP26 climate summit. This agreement improved on a 2014 plan that aimed to reduce deforestation by 50% by 2020 and end it by 2030. Brazil signed the new agreement, even though deforestation increased between 2014 and 2020.

In August 2023, Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva held a meeting in Belem with eight South American countries to create a plan for protecting the Amazon. This event prepared for the COP30 climate talks in 2025.

From January to August 2023, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon dropped by 48%, preventing 196 million tons of CO₂ from entering the atmosphere. Funding from the Amazon Fund and cooperation between Amazon nations helped reduce deforestation. In the first nine months of 2023, deforestation fell by 49.5%, even though the region had the worst drought in 40 years. Wildfires in September 2023 were 36% lower than in September 2022. Switzerland and the United States donated $8.4 million to the Amazon Fund to stop deforestation.

According to Amazon Conservation’s MAAP program, deforestation in the Amazon rainforest dropped by 55.8% from January to November 8, 2023, compared to the same period in 2022. This decline gives hope for the Amazon. Brazil’s 59% drop in deforestation, the main cause of the trend, may be due to Lula’s environmental policies. In Colombia, deforestation fell by 66.5%, possibly because of new policies by President Gustavo Petro and changes in policies by former guerrilla groups that control parts of the forest. The reasons for drops in Bolivia (60%) and Peru (37%) are not clear. Bolivia has high forest loss from wildfires, but these fires are not in the Amazon.

In September 2024, the Munduruku people’s indigenous land, called Sawré Muybu, received official recognition. This is a major step in fighting deforestation. However, 44 other indigenous territories still need recognition.

In 2008, the Woods Hole Research Institute estimated that stopping deforestation in the Brazilian rainforest would require $100–600 million each year. A 2022 study suggested that conserving about 80% of the Brazilian rainforest is still possible, with an estimated annual cost of $1.7–2.8 billion to protect 3.5 million km². Preventing deforestation could avoid carbon emissions at a cost of $1.33 per ton of CO₂, which is much cheaper than reducing emissions through renewable energy subsidies ($100 per ton) or building insulation programs ($350 per ton).

Future of the Amazon rainforest

In 2005, scientists studied deforestation rates and predicted that the Amazon rainforest would lose 40% of its area within 20 years. Although the rate of deforestation has decreased since the early 2000s, the rainforest still loses area each year. Satellite data shows that deforestation has increased significantly since 2018.