The conservation movement began in Europe during the 18th century, but Costa Rica is now widely recognized as a leader in conservation efforts. Costa Rica is home to a large number of species despite its small size. It has more animal and plant species than the United States and Canada combined, with over 500,000 species of plants and animals. Costa Rica is only 250 miles long and 150 miles wide. A widely accepted explanation for the high number of species in the country is the mixing of species from North and South America on its unique landscape, which connects two oceans and two continents. Protecting this natural environment has drawn the attention of scientists and scholars worldwide.

MINAE (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications) is responsible for many conservation efforts in Costa Rica. It works through agencies such as SINAC (National System of Conservation Areas), FONAFIFO (National Forest Fund), and CONAGEBIO (National Commission for Biodiversity Management).

Costa Rica has made conservation a national priority. It protects 28% of its land through national parks, reserves, and wildlife refuges. These protected areas are managed by SINAC, a division of MINAE. SINAC divides the country into different zones based on the ecological diversity of each region, as shown in figure 1. Costa Rica has used its ecological diversity to support a growing ecotourism industry, which allows visitors to experience its natural environment. The tourism market in Costa Rica is expected to grow by USD 1.34 billion from 2023 to 2028, increasing at an average rate of 5.76% per year.

Costa Rica is the only country in the world that generates more than 99% of its electricity from renewable sources. These sources include hydropower (72%), wind (13%), geothermal energy (15%), and biomass and solar (1%). However, some critics note that the construction of dams, which provide most of the country’s electricity, has harmed indigenous communities and local plants and animals.

Historical development

"The Green Republic: A Conservation History of Costa Rica" by Sterling Evans is a well-known book that describes how conservation efforts in Costa Rica developed from the mid-1700s to today. Evans explains that when Spanish explorers first arrived in the Americas, they found Costa Rica’s landscape less suitable for farming compared to places like Guatemala or Mexico, which had climates more similar to Spain. Because of this, very little farming happened in Costa Rica until the 18th century. The region also lacked gold and other valuable minerals that Christopher Columbus had hoped to find, which is why the area was once called the "Rich Coast." As a result, European settlers did not heavily damage Costa Rica’s forests.

By the mid-1800s, people noticed that Costa Rica’s soil was especially good for growing coffee. At the same time, demand for coffee was rising quickly because of growing industrial economies in Europe and North America. Coffee farmers in Costa Rica used a system of small family-owned farms called cafeteras, which focused on caring for the land. This method was different from the large-scale farming that might have happened if farmers had followed a purely profit-driven approach. Even though coffee production grew a lot between 1850 and 1950, large-scale forest loss did not occur in Costa Rica until the 1950s, which is not widely known.

According to Evans, some important events in Costa Rica’s conservation history between 1850 and 2000 are often forgotten:

• In 1888, President Bernardo Soto’s government began inviting scientists from countries like Switzerland and Germany to teach locals about farming methods that protected the environment. By 1914, Costa Rica had become a major center for scientific research in tropical regions.

• The founding of the University of Costa Rica (UCR) in the 1940s was a major milestone. The university helped advance research on tropical ecosystems in Central America. Important scholars like Rafael Lucas Rodríguez and Alexander Skutch led UCR and wrote influential works that shaped future policies. Skutch noted that in the 1930s, Costa Rica remained mostly untouched, with a small population and political stability that made it a good place for scientific study.

• By 1950, Costa Rica relied heavily on coffee exports to Europe and the United States. At the same time, the country faced a challenge: how to increase farming without harming natural resources. In 1958, coffee prices dropped sharply, showing how unstable this income source was. The government then promoted other industries, such as meat production.

The Central American valley was described by Carl Hoffman as "perfect for cattle." Until 1970, most cattle raised in Costa Rica were used for local food. However, by the 1970s, demand for beef in the United States grew rapidly because of the popularity of fast food. This increase, along with falling coffee prices, led to more cattle farming and the clearing of forests. At one point, Costa Rica lost 4% of its forests each year.

Julia Flagg’s analysis using a method called "process-tracing" shows that after gaining independence in 1821, Costa Rica’s separation from neighboring countries like El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Nicaragua was important in shaping its future. Mahoney explains that while other Central American nations faced war and political problems, Costa Rica avoided such turmoil and made early economic progress. She also notes that Costa Rica did not have a powerful class of landowners, which helped create fair governance and a stable democracy. The decision to abolish the military in 1948 allowed the government to invest in education and conservation. This led to a cycle where new laws earned international recognition, strengthening Costa Rica’s reputation as a leader in protecting natural resources.

"Green Republic" by Sterling Evans explores the history of conservation in Costa Rica, showing that the country’s efforts to protect the environment did not happen without challenges. Environmental damage occurred due to farming and land changes. Evans outlines key events, such as the 1969 Forest Law and the creation of a national park system. Despite difficulties, Costa Rica made progress through actions like swapping debt for nature conservation and working with organizations that focus on the environment. However, issues like the long-term success of ecotourism remain complex problems. Overall, Evans provides a detailed view of Costa Rica’s conservation journey, highlighting both achievements and ongoing challenges.

Examples of active efforts

Costa Rica has a network of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife refuges, and biological reserves. These areas protect different ecosystems, such as rainforests, cloud forests, beaches, and coral reefs, helping to preserve many types of plants and animals.

Like other natural areas, Costa Rica’s conservation zones have rules to protect the wildlife living there. Most rules are simple, such as not hunting, staying on marked trails, not taking plants, animals, or shells, and avoiding volcano craters.

Costa Rica is a global leader in ecotourism, which helps travelers explore nature while reducing harm to the environment. The country offers eco-lodges, nature tours, and adventure activities. These activities provide money to support conservation and help local communities.

Institutions like the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio) study and protect Costa Rica’s diverse plants and animals. Scientists work on projects like biodiversity surveys, genetic research, and habitat monitoring to help create better conservation plans.

Costa Rica supports local communities in conservation through programs like community-managed reserves and conservation agreements. These efforts help people manage natural resources in a way that protects the environment and supports their livelihoods.

Sometimes, government rules can slow down conservation efforts. For example, in some areas, decisions are made by the government without involving local people. However, in places like the Guanacaste Conservation Area, communities have successfully managed conservation through local involvement and fair payment systems. For these programs to work, the government must support them, local people must want to participate, and strong systems must be in place.

Programs to improve farming aim to reduce harm to the environment caused by traditional farming. These include organic farming, planting trees with crops, and certification programs that help farmers use eco-friendly methods while still producing food.

In the 1980s, Costa Rica lost a lot of forest cover. To help fix this, the government started a program in 1997 called PES, which pays landowners to keep forests on their land instead of cutting them down. This program was supported by the World Bank from 2000 to 2006. The World Bank considered the program a success, even though it had some issues.

Between the 1980s and 2013, the amount of forest in Costa Rica increased from about 20% to over 50% of the country’s land. This is a growth of 250%. The program also helped reduce the country’s carbon emissions by 11 million tons from 1999 to 2005. Indigenous people and women especially benefited from the program. The World Bank later supported a new program called “Mainstreaming Market-Based Instruments for Environmental Management.” Many international groups have encouraged the government to make the payment process easier so more communities can join the program.

Costa Rica has created marine protected areas (MPAs) to protect coastal and ocean ecosystems, such as coral reefs, mangroves, and beaches where sea turtles lay eggs. These MPAs limit fishing, protect important habitats, and help use ocean resources in a sustainable way.

The green sea turtle is an endangered species, and one of its most important nesting areas is in Tortuguero, Costa Rica. The name “Tortuguero” comes from old Spanish maps and means “place of turtles.” In the past, the turtle population dropped because people hunted them for meat and eggs. To help protect the turtles, Tortuguero National Park was created in 1975. A study by Tröeng and Rankin in 2004 showed that the number of turtles has increased over time, even though it is hard to count them exactly. The study found that three laws were important in helping the turtles recover:

• A ban on collecting turtles and their eggs in 1963.
• A ban on exporting calipee (a part of the turtle’s head) in 1970.
• The creation of Tortuguero National Park in 1975.

These laws show how government actions can help protect wildlife.

MarViva Foundation works to create and manage marine protected areas (MPAs) along the coasts of Costa Rica and other countries in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. These MPAs help protect sea turtles and other ocean life, supporting biodiversity and sustainable fishing.

WIDECAST, a group focused on sea turtle conservation, works with local organizations in Costa Rica to run volunteer programs. Volunteers help monitor turtle nests, clean beaches, and teach communities about conservation. These programs usually take place from May to November, when turtles lay eggs.

Conservation International Costa Rica (CI Costa Rica) helps plan ways to protect oceans and coasts. It also works on projects to make farming, livestock, and marine systems more environmentally friendly and resilient to climate change.

Costa Rica has improved its protected areas through rules that protect the environment and the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) Program. This program is funded by the government through the National Forestry Financing Fund (FONAFIFO) and focuses on saving forests, managing them, planting trees, and letting forests grow naturally. The program has helped protect 437,000 hectares of land and supported farmers in planting 5.4 million trees. It has also helped protect forests in areas where Indigenous people live. However, some farmers still prefer to use land for farming instead of letting forests regrow. Between 1996 and 2015, PES projects received $318 million in funding, with 64% coming from taxes on fossil fuels and 22% from loans from the World Bank.

Carbon neutral goal

Costa Rica has a strong effort to reduce carbon emissions, as shown by its National Decarbonization Plan. This plan aims to reach net-zero emissions by 2050. A RAND study found this plan to be very promising, as the money spent on reducing carbon emissions would provide a return of about 110 percent. In her final project as RAND artist-in-residence, Gabrielle Mérite created artwork to show Costa Rica's path toward a carbon-neutral future. Her work was inspired by the Solarpunk art movement, which imagines a more sustainable world.

Criticisms of active efforts

The government's plan to reach zero net emissions has led to some progress, but experts say it is not enough. This is because the plan does not address vehicle emissions, which make up about 20% of the country's total emissions. The 2021 goal has also been criticized as too fast and not based on realistic timelines, since reducing the country's use of imported oil will take many years to achieve.

In 2006, a study by Sierra and Russman looked at how much extra conservation happened because of a program called PES, compared to the usual level of conservation. The study found that the PES program influenced land use decisions because landowners used the money from the program for other productive activities, which helped keep forests protected. However, the study also said that the program was not the most effective way to use money, as most of the forests would have stayed protected even without the payments. The study suggested that protecting more important habitats would be a better use of funds.

The jaguar is an endangered species, and its habitat was threatened by the construction of the Reventazón Dam in the Reventazón valley. This dam is the largest in Central America and has a power generation capacity of 305.5 MW. The project was funded by the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank, but only if the state-run Costa Rican Electricity Institute (ICE) ensured that the dam would "restore and maintain connectivity within the Barbilla-Destierro Corridor," which is vital for the jaguar's survival.

People who oppose the dam project say the construction did not meet certain promises, including:

1) Builders did not fully clear vegetation in areas that would be flooded by the dam. This left some plants in the flooded areas, which began to decay and created conditions that allowed the Water Hyacinth (an invasive plant) to grow. The Water Hyacinth released large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane into the air.

2) Reforestation near the reservoir lake, which was meant to help jaguars move freely, was not completed. This made it harder for jaguars to travel.

3) The removal of soil and materials during construction made the nearby Lancaster wetlands more likely to experience landslides. These wetlands are home to over 250 bird species and 80 species of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

A common theme in these criticisms is that the projects have helped move things in the right direction, but the way they were carried out did not meet the promises made.