Electronic waste, or E-Waste, refers to electrical or electronic devices that are no longer used and are thrown away. It is also called waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life (EOL) electronics. E-Waste is one of the fastest growing types of waste worldwide, caused by quick technological progress and more people buying electronic devices. In 2022, about 62 million metric tons of E-Waste were created globally, making it one of the fastest growing waste streams. Only 22.3% of this waste was properly collected and recycled. By 2030, global E-Waste is expected to reach 82 million metric tons. Used electronics that are planned to be fixed, reused, sold again, broken down for parts, recycled, or thrown away are also considered E-Waste. In some developing countries, improper handling of E-Waste can harm people’s health and pollute the environment. The increased use of electronic products, due to the Digital Revolution and new scientific and technological advances, such as Bitcoin, has created a major global E-Waste problem. The fast growth of E-Waste is caused by frequent new product releases, unnecessary purchases of electronic devices, short product life cycles, and low recycling rates. Components from old electronics, like computer processors (CPUs), may contain harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling or disposing of E-Waste can pose serious health risks to workers and their communities.
Definition
When an electronic product is no longer useful and is thrown away, it becomes electronic trash, or e-waste. As new electronic models are introduced, older models become outdated and are often discarded. E-waste is created in large amounts because of a society focused on buying new products and the fast pace of technological development.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides e-waste into ten categories. These include electronics that will be reused, resold, recycled, or disposed of, as well as working electronics and materials like copper, steel, and plastic. The term "waste" refers to materials that are thrown away instead of being recycled, even if they come from reuse or recycling efforts. Some groups use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" to describe all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which are used in older computer monitors, are among the hardest types of e-waste to recycle.
Another system, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development, divides e-waste into six categories. Electronics in each category differ in how long they last, their environmental impact, and how they are collected. About 70% of toxic waste in landfills comes from electronic waste, even though e-waste makes up only 3% of all landfill waste.
CRTs contain high levels of lead and phosphors, which are needed for the screen to work. The EPA classifies discarded CRT monitors as "hazardous household waste" but considers CRTs that are recycled or sent for recycling as commodities under certain conditions. CRTs are sometimes confused with DLP Rear Projection TVs, which have different recycling processes because of their different materials.
In the European Union, the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) is used to define hazardous electronic waste. This system is translated into laws for each member country, such as the List of Wastes Directive in the UK. The EWC provides a general definition of hazardous e-waste, and waste operators must follow specific regulations to determine if waste is hazardous. Materials in the waste are assessed using additional guidelines to help identify hazardous waste.
Some exporters mix hard-to-recycle, outdated, or broken electronics with working equipment to save costs on sorting and processing. Some countries may expand the definition of "waste" electronics to protect their own markets from imported used equipment.
Recycling working electronics, such as laptops, desktops, and parts like RAM, can help cover the costs of transporting less valuable items. A 2011 study in Ghana found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported, 30% were new and 70% were used. Of the used electronics, 15% were not reused and were discarded. This contrasts with unverified claims that 80% of imports were burned in unsafe conditions.
Bitcoin mining has been linked to large amounts of e-waste, totaling 30.7 metric kilotons by May 2021. This amount is similar to the e-waste produced by a small country like Denmark. This has raised questions about the environmental impact of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.
Quantity
E-waste is the fastest-growing waste stream in the world. A 2024 study shows that about 62 million tons of e-waste are created globally each year. Only 22.3% of this waste is officially collected and recycled. The rest is often handled informally in developing countries, which can harm health and the environment. About $62 billion in valuable materials is lost yearly because recycling efforts are not enough.
Fast changes in technology, new products, lower prices, and planned obsolescence (when products are designed to stop working after a short time) have caused a growing amount of e-waste. Few circular solutions exist, but legal rules, collection systems, and other services are needed before technical fixes can work.
Parts like display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), processors (CPU, GPU, APU chips), memory (DRAM, SRAM), and audio components have different lifespans. Processors often become outdated because software no longer works with them. Display units are usually replaced even if they still work, due to changing preferences for new technology in wealthy countries. Modular smartphones, like the Phonebloks concept, could help. These phones are more durable and allow users to replace broken parts, reducing e-waste. About 50 million tons of e-waste are made each year. The USA throws away 30 million computers yearly, and Europe disposes of 100 million phones annually. Only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, with the rest going to landfills or incinerators.
A UNEP report titled Recycling – from e-waste to Resources says e-waste could increase by 500% in some countries, like India, over the next decade. The United States produces the most e-waste, about 3 million tons yearly. China produces about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate), second only to the U.S. Even though China banned e-waste imports, it still receives e-waste from developed countries.
A 2023 study found that improper e-waste disposal and recycling contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental problems. E-waste contains both harmful and valuable materials, such as heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel) and chemicals (flame retardants, dioxins). These substances can harm ecosystems and human health if not handled properly. Up to 60 elements are found in electronics, and metal concentrations in e-waste are often higher than in regular ores (like copper, aluminum, gold, silver, palladium). As of 2013, Apple sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad). Some phone companies design products to break easily so customers will buy new phones. In the U.S., about 70% of heavy metals in landfills come from discarded electronics.
While more e-waste is being produced, there is disagreement about how dangerous it is compared to other waste types, like car parts. Some say restricting used electronics trade may worsen the problem by removing honest businesses from the market.
In 2016, Asia had the most e-waste (18.2 million tons), followed by Europe (12.3 million tons), the Americas (11.3 million tons), Africa (2.2 million tons), and Oceania (0.7 million tons). Oceania had the highest e-waste per person (17.3 kg), but only 6% was collected and recycled. Europe had the second-highest per-person generation (16.6 kg) but the highest collection rate (35%). The Americas generated 11.6 kg per person but collected only 17% of e-waste. Asia generated 4.2 kg per person, and Africa generated 1.9 kg per person. Limited data exists for Africa’s collection rate. In 41 countries, e-waste data is official, while 16 others used estimates. About 34.1 million tons of e-waste remain unaccounted for. In countries without e-waste laws, e-waste is often treated as general waste, leading to improper disposal and harm to workers and the environment.
By 2019, 53.6 million tons of e-waste were generated globally, with an average of 7.3 kg per person. This is expected to rise to 74 million tons by 2030. Asia still produces the most e-waste (24.9 million tons), followed by the Americas (13.1 million tons), Europe (12 million tons), and Africa and Oceania (2.9 million and 0.7 million tons, respectively). Europe had the highest per-person e-waste generation (16.2 kg), followed by Oceania (16.1 kg) and the Americas. Africa had the lowest at 2.5 kg per person. Europe had the highest recycling rate (42.5%), and Asia had the second-highest (11.7%). The Americas and Oceania had 9.4% and 8.8%, while Africa had 0.9%. Of the 53.6 million tons of e-waste, only 9.3% was officially recycled, and the fate of 44.3% remains unknown. More countries now have e-waste laws, increasing from 61 in 2014 to 78 in 2021.
In 2021, about 57.4 million tons of e-waste were generated globally. In Europe, where e-waste is best studied, 11 of 72 electronic items in an average household are broken or not used. Each person in Europe also keeps 4–5 kg of unused electronics at home.
Global trade issues
One idea is that stricter rules about managing electronic waste and worries about harm to the environment in poorer countries make it less financially beneficial to clean up waste before sending it abroad. People who disagree with the trade of used electronics say it is still too easy for people who claim to be recyclers to send unsorted electronic waste to developing countries like China, India, and parts of Africa. This avoids the cost of removing harmful parts, such as old computer monitors, which are hard and expensive to process. These countries have become places where large amounts of electronic waste are dumped. Some of these countries try to fix and reuse old equipment, but in 2003, about 90% of electronic waste still ended up in landfills. Supporters of international trade point to successful fair trade programs in other industries, where working together has created jobs and provided affordable technology in places where repairing and reusing electronics is more common.
People who support the trade of used electronics say that mining for metals like copper, silver, and gold in poorer countries has increased. Recycling these materials from old electronics is better for the environment than mining new materials. They also say that fixing and reusing computers and televisions has become rare in wealthier countries, and that repairing old equipment has historically helped poorer nations develop.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China have found ways to reuse old products and have created large industries focused on fixing used items like ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working computer monitors. Repairing old items has sometimes threatened traditional manufacturing, and some criticism of the trade comes from efforts to protect local industries. Books like The Waste Makers by Vance Packard explain some of these concerns, such as bans on sending working computers to China or restrictions on exporting used electronics from Japan.
People who oppose sending old electronics to other countries say that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the value of materials recovered from waste lead to pollution, such as smelting copper wire. Electronic waste is often sent to countries in Africa and Asia, like China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya, for processing, sometimes without permission. Many used computers are sent to developing countries as places to dispose of electronic waste.
The Basel Convention, created in 1989, is a major international agreement meant to control the movement of dangerous waste to protect countries that receive it. The United States has not agreed to the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, so it has few laws stopping the export of toxic waste. Groups like the Basel Action Network estimate that about 80% of electronic waste sent to recycling centers in the U.S. is not actually recycled there but is shipped to countries like China. This number is disputed by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.
Research from Arizona State University found that 87–88% of used computers imported into the U.S. were sold for more than the value of their parts, showing that the trade in used computers is mainly about reuse, not recycling.
Basel Convention Obstacles
The Basel Convention and Ban Amendment face challenges in being followed properly by countries around the world. One problem is that some countries do not report their waste management activities because they have not signed the Basel Convention or because low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) often use informal methods to collect and recycle waste. According to the 2024 UNEP report from the sixteenth meeting of the Basel Convention, 27 countries did not submit reports from 2018 to 2022 about their progress in following the Basel Convention. These countries include Belize, Cambodia, Chile, Djibouti, Dominica, Somalia, Tonga, Mauritius, Nepal, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Cameroon, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Liechtenstein, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Samoa, Republic of Korea, Uruguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Zambia.
Another issue is that some reports and laws use unclear language. At the sixteenth meeting, 68 out of 126 countries did not clearly define what is considered illegal waste trafficking. E-waste is sometimes sent abroad under the name of "used materials" or "second-hand goods," which creates gaps in the rules and makes it harder to stop improper waste movement.
The Basel Convention also places the responsibility for tracking waste and punishing violations on the countries themselves. At the sixteenth meeting, it was found that 66 countries had rules to return hazardous waste, and 52 countries treated the illegal movement of hazardous waste between countries as a crime. While these numbers include all types of hazardous waste, electronic waste is part of these statistics. These challenges allow LMICs to receive large amounts of e-waste through global trade, which can harm the health of people in those regions.
Some people argue that the growth of internet access is more closely linked to trade than poverty. For example, Haiti is a poor country and is closer to the port of New York than southeast Asia, but more e-waste is sent from New York to Asia than to Haiti. In many developing countries, thousands of people work in jobs related to repairing, reusing, and recycling electronics. These jobs are declining in developed countries but provide employment and access to affordable products and the internet in developing nations. A reporter named Adam Minter wrote that many of these activities in China are considered sustainable.
Others argue that developing countries often use harmful and wasteful methods to process e-waste. One common method is burning electronic equipment in open fires to melt plastics and remove metals. This releases dangerous chemicals like dioxins and furans into the air, creating smog that harms health. These harmful substances can also pollute water sources when waste is dumped into drainage ditches or rivers.
In 2008, Greenpeace stopped a container of e-waste that was being sent from the U.S. to China. Concerns about e-waste exports were also raised in reports from India, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Nigeria.
A study by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT) project, supported by the European Commission, found that in 2012, only 35% of e-waste in Europe was properly collected and recycled. The remaining 65% was either exported (1.5 million tons), recycled in ways that did not follow rules (3.15 million tons), scavenged for valuable parts (750,000 tons), or thrown away (750,000 tons).
Guiyu, a town in China, is a major center for processing e-waste and is often called the "e-waste capital of the world." It was once an agricultural area but became a recycling hub in the 1990s. Over 75% of local households and 100,000 migrant workers are involved in e-waste processing. Workers in Guiyu snip cables, remove chips from circuit boards, grind plastic cases, and use acid baths to extract metals. Other workers strip wires to collect copper. These activities have caused environmental issues like polluted groundwater, air pollution, and health risks for workers and nearby communities.
In Guiyu, six villages focus on disassembling circuit boards, seven on reprocessing plastics and metals, and two on separating wires and cables. Greenpeace tested samples in Guiyu and found high levels of toxic metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium in the soil, water, and air. Similar e-waste processing sites exist in Nigeria, Ghana (Agbogbloshie), and India.
Guiyu is one of the oldest and largest informal e-waste recycling sites globally. Other sites are found in India, Ghana, Nigeria, and the Philippines. Studies have shown that workers in e-waste recycling areas, such as Delhi and Bangalore in India, are exposed to harmful chemicals.
Bitcoin mining has also increased e-waste production. According to a study, each Bitcoin transaction creates about 272 grams of e-waste, and in 2020 alone, Bitcoin generated about 112.5 million grams of waste. Other estimates suggest that Bitcoin produces as much e-waste annually as the Netherlands does. This is because Bitcoin uses a system called "proof-of-work," where miners compete to solve complex problems to earn rewards. This process requires powerful computers, which leads to frequent upgrades and more waste.
According to Koomey's Law, the efficiency of computer chips doubles every 1.5 years. This means that new, more powerful chips are developed regularly, contributing to the rapid replacement of older technology and increasing e-waste.
Environmental impact
The process of taking apart and getting rid of old electronics in developing countries causes harm to the environment. Chemicals and air pollution from these activities enter water, soil, air, and plants. These pollutants then move into animals, plants that people and animals eat, and drinking water.
A study in Guiyu, China, found these issues:
– Airborne dioxins were found at 100 times the levels measured before.
– Levels of cancer-causing chemicals in duck ponds and rice fields were higher than international standards. Levels of heavy metals like lead, copper, nickel, and cadmium in rice fields also exceeded international standards.
– Heavy metals in road dust included lead levels over 300 times higher than in a control village and copper levels over 100 times higher.
In Agbogbloshie, Ghana, where about 40,000 people live, e-waste pollution affects nearly all residents. This area, one of the largest informal e-waste processing sites in Africa, receives about 215,000 tons of used electronics each year, mostly from Western Europe. Because homes, businesses, and industries are close together here, Agbogbloshie is ranked among the world’s 10 worst toxic threats. Improper disposal of e-waste allows harmful chemicals to spread through soil, water, and air, increasing the risk of harm to people and the environment.
A study in Agbogbloshie found lead levels in soil as high as 18,125 ppm. The US EPA sets a limit of 400 ppm for lead in soil in play areas and 1200 ppm in other areas. Workers at the site often burn electronic parts and wires to recover copper, releasing toxic chemicals like lead, dioxins, and furans into the environment.
Researchers like Brett Robinson, a professor at Lincoln University in New Zealand, warn that wind patterns in Southeast China spread toxic particles from open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta, home to 45 million people. These chemicals enter the "soil-crop-food pathway," a major way people are exposed to heavy metals. These chemicals do not break down naturally and stay in the environment for a long time, increasing the risk of harm.
In Chachoengsao, an area near Bangkok, villagers lost their main water source due to e-waste dumping. In late 2017, a Chinese-run factory started bringing in used electronics like broken computers and cables to recycle for valuable metals like copper, silver, and gold. However, these items also contain highly toxic materials like lead, cadmium, and mercury. A local resident reported that noxious fumes from processing made her feel faint and that the factory contaminated her water. Tests by environmental groups and the local government found high levels of toxic chemicals like iron, manganese, lead, nickel, and in some cases, arsenic and cadmium in the water. People who used water from shallow wells reported skin diseases or foul smells.
The chemical makeup of e-waste depends on the age and type of the item. Most e-waste contains metals like copper, aluminum, and iron, which may be attached to, covered by, or mixed with plastics and ceramics. E-waste harms the environment, and it is important to dispose of it using an R2 certified recycling facility.
Information security
Old computers and other devices that are thrown away might still have data that can be read. This data may include private information that belonged to the people who used the device before. Even if the data is deleted or the device is reset to its original settings, the information might not be completely removed. This means that someone with bad intentions might find the data, which could lead to a data leak.
A plan for recycling these devices can help keep information safe by making sure the right steps are taken to erase private data. These steps might include formatting the storage devices again, covering the data with random information to make it impossible to recover, or physically destroying the storage devices by shredding them to completely remove all data. For example, on many computers, deleting a file might not actually remove the data from the storage device, so someone could still find it using regular methods.
Recycling
Recycling helps reduce harmful materials entering the environment and prevents the loss of natural resources. Local governments and community education must support recycling efforts. Less than 20% of electronic waste is officially recycled, while 80% ends up in landfills or is informally recycled, often by hand in developing countries. This process exposes workers to dangerous substances like mercury, lead, and cadmium. Although electronic waste contains valuable resources, only a small amount is officially recycled, leading to significant waste.
There are three main methods for extracting valuable metals from electronic waste: hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and hydro-pyrometallurgical. Each method has its own benefits and drawbacks, and all produce harmful waste.
A major challenge is recycling printed circuit boards from electronic waste. These boards contain valuable metals like gold, silver, and platinum, as well as base metals like copper, iron, and aluminum. One method involves melting circuit boards, burning cables to recover copper, and using acid leaching to separate valuable metals. Traditional methods use mechanical shredding, but this is not very efficient. Alternative methods, such as cryogenic decomposition, are being studied. In 2023, a new material called AF aerogel, made with protein fibrils, was developed to help extract gold from circuit boards.
Properly disposing of or reusing electronics can prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and create jobs.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages electronic recyclers to become certified by showing they meet safety and environmental standards through independent audits. Two certification programs endorsed by the EPA are Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards. Certified recyclers ensure materials are managed safely, reuse electronics when possible, and protect human health and the environment. These companies are regularly checked to ensure they follow strict standards.
Some U.S. retailers offer recycling programs for old electronics. The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) provides a recycling locator to help consumers find safe and responsible recycling locations. These programs use strict standards and third-party certifications to ensure electronics are recycled properly. Research shows 58% of consumers know where to recycle old electronics, and the industry hopes to increase this number. Over 5,000 recycling locations across the U.S. are supported by manufacturers and retailers, with a goal to recycle one billion pounds of electronics annually by 2016.
The Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Electronic Challenge, started by the EPA in 2012, involves electronics manufacturers and retailers. These companies collect old electronics and send them to certified recyclers. Participants can publicly report that their recycling is fully responsible. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition (ETBC) works to protect human health and reduce environmental harm by holding manufacturers accountable for recycling electronics. It also provides guidelines for recycling and lists recyclers that follow environmental standards. While recycling efforts have improved, challenges remain, such as ensuring recycling standards are properly enforced and managing waste with value. Stakeholders agree that better accountability and efficiency are needed to improve recycling systems.
The Certified Electronics Recycler program sets standards for managing electronics responsibly, focusing on quality, environmental protection, and safety. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition works to improve health and address environmental justice issues caused by toxins in technology. The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) promotes better recycling practices in importing countries and supports "Fair Trade" principles. Take Back My TV, a project by the Electronics TakeBack Coalition, evaluates television manufacturers based on their responsibility.
Efforts have also been made to highlight the dangers of e-waste dismantling in U.S. prisons. A report called Toxic Sweatshops shows that inmates are sometimes forced to handle e-waste under unsafe conditions due to poor prison safety standards.
In Argentina, a group called Argentina's Cyber Dumpster Divers collects e-waste and repurposes it into new items like cameras and video game consoles. This work became especially important during the Covid-19 pandemic.
In many developed countries, electronic waste is first processed by dismantling devices into parts.
Financial incentives for electronic waste recycling
Financial incentives are tools used by governments and organizations to help people properly collect, recycle, and dispose of electronic waste (e-waste). These tools aim to reduce unsafe recycling practices, recover valuable materials like gold, silver, and copper, and improve how waste is managed. Reports show that only 22.3% of e-waste was collected and recycled globally in 2022, even though e-waste often contains more valuable metals than natural ores.
Deposit–refund systems (DRS) require people to pay an extra cost when buying electronics, which is returned when the product is returned at the end of its life. Studies show these systems can increase the return of used electronics compared to systems without incentives. However, how well they work depends on the type of waste; for example, deposit systems for portable batteries have had limited success in increasing collection rates.
Some governments give money to certified recyclers through subsidies, grants, or tax breaks to support formal e-waste recycling. Research in Taiwan shows that combining financial rewards with public education improves recycling results and reduces reliance on unsafe recycling methods. Other studies show that subsidies can improve the efficiency of systems that handle e-waste recycling.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) holds manufacturers financially or organizationally responsible for managing e-waste at the end of a product’s life. International reviews show EPR helps shift waste-management costs from governments to companies, encouraging better product design and recycling programs. In the European Union, EPR is required by the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, which makes producers pay for collecting, treating, and recycling electronics.
Investing in e-waste treatment infrastructure, such as certified dismantling plants and collection systems, is linked to higher formal recycling rates. Areas with strong infrastructure use fewer unsafe recycling practices, reducing environmental and health risks.
In the European Union, the WEEE Directive requires EPR and sets rules for collecting, reusing, and recycling e-waste. However, progress varies among member states, and many struggle to meet recycling goals.
In the United States, e-waste policies are managed at the state level. Some states use producer-funded take-back systems, host collection events, or offer rebates and vouchers to encourage recycling.
Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan use EPR or deposit–refund systems to reduce unsafe recycling and improve material recovery. Studies show that formal, regulated recycling systems collect more e-waste than unregulated methods.
Financial incentives can increase participation in formal e-waste recycling and reduce harm from unsafe practices. However, challenges remain, including uneven enforcement of rules, inadequate infrastructure, and some e-waste still being handled outside formal systems.
Proper e-waste recycling helps recover valuable materials like metals and rare earth elements, reduces the need to extract new resources, creates jobs, and supports goals for recycling materials. By turning old electronics into useful resources, recycling helps manage materials more sustainably and lowers the environmental impact of using electronics.
Repair as waste reduction method
There are several ways to reduce the environmental harm caused by recycling electronic waste. One major problem is that many electronic devices stop working after a short time. Two main reasons contribute to this issue. First, people often buy cheap products that are not built to last long. Second, some companies design products to encourage frequent upgrades. They may do this by limiting access to spare parts, repair guides, or software updates, or by making devices stop working after a certain time.
Because of these problems, more people are trying to fix broken electronics instead of throwing them away. Repair efforts often happen in communities, such as at repair cafés or events called "restart parties" organized by the Restart Project.
In the United States, farmers are leading the "right to repair" movement. They want access to repair information, tools, and parts for their advanced farming equipment. This movement also includes other groups, like those who criticize companies like Apple for limiting repair options. Companies often argue that unauthorized repairs could cause safety risks.
One simple way to reduce electronic waste is to sell or give away old devices instead of throwing them away. Improper disposal of electronic waste is becoming more dangerous as the amount of e-waste grows. To help, companies like Apple and Samsung now offer recycling programs for old electronics. Recycling allows valuable parts to be reused, saving energy and reducing the need to mine new materials or create new parts. Many areas have local recycling programs that can be found online by searching for "recycle electronics" along with the city or region name.
Cloud storage services help people save data online, making it possible to access files from anywhere without needing physical storage devices. This reduces the need to buy new storage devices, which helps lower the amount of electronic waste created.
Electronic waste classification
The market offers many types of electrical products. To organize these items, it is important to group them into clear and useful categories. Classifying these products can help decide how to properly dispose of them. These classifications help describe electronic waste, but they do not include details about products that are not harmful to the environment. However, classifications should not be too general because different countries may understand them in different ways. The UNU-KEYs system closely follows the harmonized statistical (HS) coding. This is an international system used worldwide to classify items for customs purposes.
Electronic waste substances
Some parts of computers can be reused when making new computer products. Other parts are broken down into metals that can be used in different areas, such as building structures, making silverware, and creating jewelry. Materials found in large amounts include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron, and aluminum. Materials found in smaller amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium. Materials found in very small amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron, cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium, vanadium, and yttrium. The following are common uses:
Human health and safety
People who live near e-waste recycling sites may be exposed to harmful substances even if they don't work there. This happens because they can come into contact with polluted air, water, soil, dust, and food. The main ways people are exposed are by breathing in harmful substances, eating them, or touching them with their skin. Studies show that people living near these sites take in more heavy metals daily and have higher levels of harmful substances in their bodies. Children and pregnant women are especially at risk. Health risks include mental health problems, trouble thinking and learning, and physical health issues. DNA damage is more common in people exposed to e-waste than in those who are not. DNA breaks can cause mistakes in cell replication, leading to mutations and cancer if the damage affects certain genes. Workers who handle e-waste directly, such as by dismantling, burning, or using acid, are at the highest risk because they are exposed to toxic chemicals.
Prenatal exposure to e-waste can harm the health of newborns. In Guiyu, a major e-waste recycling site in China, studies found that babies born to parents who worked with e-waste had higher lead levels in their blood. This was linked to how long their mothers lived in Guiyu or worked in e-waste sites during pregnancy. Higher levels of a protein called metallothionein in newborns from Guiyu were tied to exposure to cadmium, which was also connected to their parents' work with e-waste. Exposure to a chemical called PFOA in mothers was linked to slower growth and lower chances of healthy development in their babies.
Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling can lead to serious birth problems, such as stillbirth, low birth weight, and lower scores for newborn health. These issues can also affect children's behavior and learning abilities later in life.
Children are more vulnerable to e-waste exposure because they are smaller, have faster metabolism, and have more skin area relative to their body weight. They also have more ways to be exposed, like touching things and putting them in their mouths. Studies show children living near e-waste sites have about eight times the health risk of adult workers. For example, children in Guiyu had blood lead levels nearly 1.5 times higher than those in a control area. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) considers blood lead levels above 5 micrograms per deciliter as a health concern. Children whose parents worked with circuit boards had the highest lead levels, while those whose parents recycled plastic had the lowest.
Exposure to e-waste can harm children's health. Toxins like lead, mercury, cadmium, and others in e-waste can increase the risk of lower intelligence, learning problems, and cancer. Some studies found children in e-waste areas had weaker lung function, trouble with blood clotting, hearing loss, and lower immunity from vaccines. For example, boys aged 8–9 years exposed to nickel had lower lung capacity and changes in their body’s ability to fight stress.
The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) lists dangers for e-waste workers, such as injuries from crushing objects, exposure to harmful energy, and contact with toxic metals. OSHA also notes chemicals in electronics, like lead, mercury, and asbestos, that can harm workers. These chemicals have safety limits set by OSHA, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
Informal e-waste recycling involves small workshops with little automation or safety equipment. Formal recycling uses machines and follows safety rules, such as using protective gear and controlling pollution. Sometimes, formal facilities sort e-waste materials and send them to other departments for further recycling.
Health risks differ between informal and formal recycling. Studies in China found workers in formal facilities in Jiangsu and Shanghai had lower health risks than those in informal sites in Guiyu. Informal recycling often uses unsafe methods, like burning e-waste to get metals, which exposes workers to harmful chemicals. Children in these areas often help with recycling, increasing their health risks. Workers in informal settings rarely use safety gear like masks or gloves.
In India, a study found workers at a formal recycling facility had higher levels of certain metals in their hair than those in an informal slum community. However, workers in the slum had higher levels of other metals.
Even in formal recycling, workers may be exposed to harmful substances. Studies in France and Sweden found workers had higher levels of lead, cadmium, and other chemicals than recommended. They were also exposed to more flame-retardant chemicals than others.
Much informal e-waste recycling happens in low-income or developing countries. A 2025 report by Transparency International highlighted this trend.
E-waste legislative frameworks
The European Union (EU) has created two laws to manage electronic waste. The first law, called the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive), started in 2003. Its main goal was to help member countries manage and reuse electronic waste. This law was updated in 2008, and the new version began in 2014. The EU also created a second law in 2003, called the Directive on the restriction of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. This law was revised in 2012.
In Western Balkan countries, North Macedonia passed a law about batteries in 2010 and another about managing electronic waste in 2012. Serbia created a national waste management plan from 2010 to 2019 that includes rules for handling electronic waste. Montenegro passed a law in 2010 that aims to collect 4 kilograms of electronic waste per person each year until 2020. Albania has a draft law from 2011 that focuses on the design of electronic equipment. Bosnia and Herzegovina does not yet have a law to manage electronic waste.
In Asia, countries like Thailand and China have taken steps to stop the import of electronic waste. Thailand banned electronic waste imports in 2020, and China did the same in 2018. However, some people have found ways to avoid these rules.
As of 2024, 81 countries worldwide have created policies or laws to manage electronic waste. However, many countries have not followed these rules strictly. In regions like Asia and Africa, some policies are not legally required and are only suggestions. This makes it harder to manage electronic waste properly. For example, research from the EU shows that laws against electronic waste have led to more electronic waste being sent to other countries.
Solving the E-waste Problem is an organization that works with the United Nations University to find solutions for electronic waste issues. It includes companies, governments, and other groups that handle electronic waste. The organization encourages teamwork among all people involved in managing electronic waste and promotes scientific, practical solutions.
The European Commission (EC) of the EU classifies electronic waste as materials from devices like refrigerators, televisions, and mobile phones. In 2005, the EU reported 9 million tons of electronic waste, and by 2020, this number increased to 12 million tons. If not managed correctly, electronic waste can harm the environment and cause health problems. Disposing of this waste and making new products requires large resources like aluminum, gold, copper, and silicon, which can damage the environment.
To address these issues, the EU created two laws: the WEEE Directive and the RoHS Directive. The WEEE Directive, which started in 2003, focuses on recycling electronic waste. It allows free collection of electronic waste for consumers. The law was revised in 2008 and updated again in 2012, with the new version taking effect in 2014. In 2017, the EC added rules to track the amount of electronic waste in each country.
The RoHS Directive, created in 2003, limits the use of harmful materials like lead, mercury, and cadmium in electronic products. This law was revised in 2008 and again in 2013. In 2017, the EC updated the law to improve its effectiveness.
Each year, the EU handles about 800,000 tons of batteries from the automotive industry, 190,000 tons of industrial batteries, and 160,000 tons of consumer batteries. These batteries are used in many household items. Proper collection and recycling of batteries are important to prevent harmful materials from polluting the environment. The EC created the Batteries Directive to improve battery recycling and reduce environmental harm. This law also stops the sale of batteries that contain dangerous materials. A new rule, the Batteries Regulation, was proposed in 2020 to ensure batteries sold in the EU are recyclable and safe.
In 2006, the EC passed the Batteries Directive, which was updated in 2013. This law focuses on collecting, recycling, and labeling batteries that are safe for the environment.
Potential Future Recommendations
To improve policies and actions that reduce e-waste and its effects, several steps can be taken. Teaching the public about the harm e-waste causes to the environment and people's health can help individuals make better choices to reduce their own e-waste. This effort may also involve electronic companies, as raising awareness could encourage the creation of longer-lasting, more sustainable technologies. Education can also reach informal e-waste recyclers, who may not know about the health risks their work can cause.
Using clearer terms to describe used and waste materials could help fix problems in rules like the Basel Convention and Ban Amendment. These rules need updates to address gaps in how e-waste is managed.
Governments and businesses can support formal recycling programs to protect workers' safety while ensuring their jobs and income remain stable. This is especially important in low- and middle-income countries, such as parts of Ghana, where informal recyclers rely on this work to support their families. Providing equal waste management improvements in low-income areas is also necessary.
To reduce the health risks linked to e-waste and its recycling, medical programs and resources should be improved or started in areas where people are heavily exposed to e-waste pollution.