Cellular agriculture uses cells to make agricultural products like proteins, fats, and tissues. Scientists use biotechnology, tissue engineering, molecular biology, and synthetic biology to create these products without traditional farming. This area mainly makes animal products such as meat, milk, honey, and eggs using cell cultures. It is seen as a better way to produce these items than traditional farming and killing animals, which cause big problems like harming the environment, animal suffering, not enough food, and health issues.

History

Cellular agriculture products were first brought to market in the late 20th century with insulin and rennet.

On March 24, 1990, the FDA approved a bacterium that was engineered to produce rennet, making it the first food-related product created through genetic engineering. Rennet is a group of enzymes used to change milk into curds and whey during cheese making. Traditionally, rennet was taken from the lining of the fourth stomach of young cows. Today, cheese production often uses rennet made from engineered bacteria, fungi, or yeast because these sources are purer, more reliable, and less costly than animal-based rennet.

In 2004, Jason Matheny started New Harvest, an organization focused on advancing cellular agriculture. New Harvest gave the first PhD funding for cellular agriculture research at Tufts University.

By 2014, IndieBio, a company in San Francisco that helps develop new technologies, supported several startups in cellular agriculture. These companies included Muufri (now called Perfect Day Foods), which made milk from cell cultures; The EVERY Company, which produced egg whites from cell cultures; Gelzen (now Geltor), which made gelatin from bacteria and yeast; Afineur, which created cultured coffee beans; and Pembient, which made rhino horn. Muufri and The EVERY Company were originally supported by New Harvest.

In 2015, Mercy for Animals founded The Good Food Institute, which works to support plant-based and cellular agriculture.

Also in 2015, Isha Datar introduced the term "cellular agriculture" (often called "cell ag") in a New Harvest Facebook group.

On July 13, 2016, New Harvest held the first international conference on cellular agriculture in San Francisco, California. The next day, New Harvest organized the first private meeting for industry, academic, and government experts working in cellular agriculture.

Research tools

Several important research tools are essential for studying cellular agriculture. These include:

A major challenge in developing cultured meat is finding the right types of cells to use. Some methods used for growing human or mouse cells may not work for other animals. For example, techniques that successfully create human or mouse stem cells have not worked for making stem cells from animals like cows.

The best cell lines for producing cultured meat should be able to live forever, grow quickly, not need a surface to attach to, not require special nutrients from animal blood, and form tissues. The best cell types for this process may vary depending on the animal species.

Traditionally, scientists use fetal bovine serum (FBS) to grow animal cells in the lab. FBS is a product made from the blood of unborn calves. It provides cells with nutrients and growth signals, but it is hard to produce in large amounts, causes environmental problems, and can vary greatly between batches. Companies working on cultured meat are trying to find better alternatives to replace FBS.

After creating cell lines, removing FBS from growth media is a major goal. This is because FBS has been a common criticism of cultured meat production. Scientists likely need two different media types for each cell type: one to help cells grow (proliferation media) and another to help cells mature (differentiation media).

As biotechnology processes grow larger, experiments become more expensive. This is because bigger bioreactors (machines used to grow cells) must be built, and each size change requires adjusting factors like how liquids move, how nutrients spread, and how chemical reactions happen.

To help cells form tissue, a scaffold (a structure that supports cells) is often added. Scaffolds are needed for cells to create tissues larger than 100 micrometers. A good scaffold must not harm cells, be safe for humans to eat, allow nutrients and oxygen to reach cells, and be easy and cheap to make in large amounts without using animals.

The final step in making cultured meat is combining all the previous research to create large tissue pieces (larger than 100 micrometers) made from mass-produced cells. These tissues should not need FBS, use a suitable scaffold, and be safe for human consumption.

Applications

Most discussions about cellular agriculture focus on food, especially cultured meat. However, this technology can also produce other agricultural products, such as fragrances made by Ginkgo Bioworks. Cultured meat is made by growing animal cells in a lab. It is a type of cellular agriculture being studied because people want more protein options.

Cultured meat is created using techniques from regenerative medicine, which helps repair the body. The idea of cultured meat was first shared widely by Jason Matheny in the early 2000s. He wrote a paper on the topic and started New Harvest, the first nonprofit group focused on lab-grown meat research.

Cultured meat may help solve problems like the environmental effects of meat production, animal welfare, food shortages, and health issues. It is especially linked to reducing climate change.

In 2013, professor Mark Post at Maastricht University made the first cultured meat hamburger patty. Later, companies like SuperMeat tested cultured chicken burgers in Tel Aviv, and in 2020, the first commercial sale of lab-grown meat happened in Singapore.

Most companies focus on popular meats like pork, beef, and chicken. However, some companies, like Orbillion Bio, make cultured versions of less common meats, such as elk and Wagyu beef. Others, like Avant Meats, are creating cultured fish.

The process of making cultured meat is improving because many companies and research groups are working on it. This has led to discussions about ethics, health, the environment, culture, and money. In 2021, companies selling cultured meat raised $140 million in Europe alone.

In 2020, Singapore approved the first cultivated meat product. The chicken meat was grown in a special container using a mix of amino acids, sugar, and salt. The chicken nuggets were about 70% lab-grown meat and included other ingredients. The company aims to make the price similar to restaurant chicken.

In 2023, the U.S. Department of Agriculture allowed the sale of cell-cultivated chicken in the United States. Companies like UPSIDE Foods and GOOD Meat received final approval after working with the FDA. These products were first sold in San Francisco and Washington, D.C.

Perfect Day, a company in San Francisco, began as the New Harvest Dairy Project and was developed by IndieBio in 2014. It makes dairy products using yeast instead of cows. New Culture, also in San Francisco, creates mozzarella cheese using proteins made by microbes instead of cows. Real Vegan Cheese, a nonprofit group, makes cheese using microbes.

Formo, in Germany, and Imagindairy, in Israel, use microbes to make dairy products. Remilk and Wilk, both in Israel, are working on milk proteins and human milk ingredients. NewMoo, in Israel, and Real Deal Milk, in Spain, are creating dairy proteins using different methods. Opalia, in Canada, and Cultivated Biosciences, in Switzerland, are also exploring new ways to make milk and plant-based products. Strauss Group, a large food company in Israel, started selling vegan milk and cream cheese in 2025.

The EVERY Company, in San Francisco, makes egg whites using yeast instead of eggs. Geltor, also in San Francisco, uses bacteria and yeast to make gelatin.

In 2021, companies announced they had created synthetic coffee using cellular agriculture. This coffee is made in labs from coffee cells and may use fewer resources than traditional coffee.

Sothic Bioscience, in Cork, is making a synthetic version of horseshoe crab blood, which is used in medical testing.

Cellular agriculture can also be used to make fish feed. Finless Foods and Wild Type are working on this.

Ginkgo Bioworks, in Boston, makes fragrances and custom microbes. Spiber, in Japan, uses bacteria to create artificial silk from spider proteins. Bolt T is also involved in similar work.

Issues

The bioeconomy is often linked to the idea of "green growth." A study suggests that a "circular bioeconomy" might be essential for achieving a future with no carbon emissions, as outlined in the Paris Agreement. However, some people worry that focusing too much on technology might keep an unsustainable economic system unchanged instead of replacing it. Others are concerned that the bioeconomy could prioritize economic goals over protecting the environment, reducing the use of non-biological methods that might improve sustainability. A study noted that the European Union's current understanding of the bioeconomy is very different from an earlier idea that increasing use of renewable resources would slow economic growth and set limits on economic expansion. Some also warn that companies like those in Silicon Valley or food industries might use bioeconomy technologies to mislead the public or gain unfair control over markets. The bioeconomy's innovations might distract from the need for major changes in how society and the economy are structured, creating a false belief that technology alone can solve problems without changing current systems.

Many farmers rely on traditional methods to grow crops, especially in developing countries. If new methods, like synthetic coffee production, are used without changing the current economic system (including how resources are distributed and incentives are set), they could harm farmers' jobs and income, as well as the stability of their countries. A study found that because of the high costs and technical skills needed, cultured meat may not help poor people in developing nations immediately. It also noted that animal farming is often vital for the survival of farmers in poor countries. However, this issue is not limited to developing nations.

Some observers fear that the bioeconomy could become as unclear and unaccountable as the current food system it aims to replace. Concerns include mass production of meat that may not be nutritious and sold in uniform fast-food settings.

Medical experts have warned that patents on genes can limit medical practice and scientific progress. This issue can also affect other areas where patents and private ownership of knowledge prevent the use or development of techniques for many years. At the same time, some argue that without patent protection, companies might lack the motivation or funds to invest in research and development for biotechnology, as they might not earn enough profit from their efforts. "Biopiracy" refers to using legal systems to claim ownership of natural resources or biological products that have been used for centuries by non-industrialized cultures.

Instead of creating affordable, healthy, and safe food with minimal labor through local innovation and knowledge sharing, the bioeconomy might lead to greater control by large companies and increased inequality. For example, even if production costs are low, the cost of medicines or other products might remain high.

Some argue that government funding could help regulate and license cellular agriculture. Private companies and investors usually aim to maximize profits rather than benefit society. Radical innovation is often risky and involves unequal access to information, making it hard for private markets to manage these challenges effectively. Governments might also help coordinate efforts, as multiple innovators may be needed to advance knowledge and make markets profitable, but no single company wants to invest early. Investment in these areas seems to be a barrier to moving toward a bioeconomy. Governments could also assist innovators who lack connections to gain visibility and political influence to access public funds. By creating infrastructure to support new businesses, governments can help build a favorable environment for bioeconomy startups. Supporting these startups to take advantage of opportunities in the bioeconomy can help ensure its success.

Academic programs

A partnership between New Harvest and the Tissue Engineering Research Center (TERC), a program supported by the NIH that began in 2004 to help develop tissue engineering. The fellowship provides money for students studying for a Master's or PhD at Tufts University who are working on creating 3D tissue systems that can be used as food. These systems involve designing tunable structures, understanding their mechanics, and studying the biology involved.

Conferences

New Harvest connects leaders in cellular agriculture and new participants from industry and schools to share important information about the future of this field. The conference was held in San Francisco, California, Brooklyn, New York, and is now held in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

The 3rd Annual Industrializing Cell-Based Meats & Seafood Summit is the only meeting where important people from biotech, food tech, food and meat companies, and investors gather to discuss challenges in making cell-based meats and seafood.

The International Scientific Conference on Cultured Meat started with Maastricht University in 2015. It brings together scientists and industry experts from around the world to share new research and progress in cultured meat. The event happens every year in Maastricht, The Netherlands.

The GFI conference is an event that aims to help bring plant-based and clean meat to the market faster.

The Cultured Meat Symposium is a conference in Silicon Valley that shares important ideas about the clean meat movement.

The Alternative Protein Show is an event that helps people work together in the "New Protein Landscape," which includes plant-based and cellular agriculture.

The New Food Conference is an event for the food industry that helps speed up and support new animal product alternatives. It is Europe's first and biggest conference on new-protein solutions.

In the media

Cultured Meat and Future Food is a podcast that discusses clean meat and new food technologies. It is hosted by Alex Shirazi, a designer who creates user-friendly mobile apps and lives in Menlo Park, California. Alex's current work focuses on technology used in retail stores. The podcast includes interviews with people who work in startups, invest in companies, and run non-profit organizations that are involved in cellular agriculture.

Similar fields of research and production

• Microbial food cultures and genetically engineered microbial production (e.g., of spider silk or solar-energy-based protein powder)
• Controlled arrangement of plant proteins (e.g., plant-based materials that mimic spider silk)
• Cell-free artificial synthesis (see Biobased economy#Agriculture)
• Imitation foods (e.g., meat analogues and milk substitutes)