Manta rays are large rays in the genus Mobula (previously called Manta). Three species are known: M. birostris, the largest at 7 meters (23 feet) wide; M. yarae, which reaches 6 meters (20 feet); and M. alfredi, the smallest at 5.5 meters (18 feet). All three have triangular pectoral fins, horn-shaped cephalic fins, and large, forward-facing mouths. They belong to the order Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives) and the family Myliobatidae (eagle rays). They have one of the highest brain-to-body ratios among fish and can pass the mirror test.

Manta rays live in warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical waters. All three species are pelagic, meaning they live in open oceans. M. birostris and M. yarae migrate across oceans, often alone or in groups, while M. alfredi tends to stay near coasts. They are filter feeders that eat large amounts of zooplankton, which they collect with their open mouths as they swim. Research suggests most of their food comes from deeper ocean layers. Gestation lasts more than a year, and mantas give birth to live young. Mantas sometimes visit cleaning stations to remove parasites. Like whales, they breach, though the reason is unknown.

M. birostris and M. alfredi are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Human threats include pollution, getting caught in fishing nets, and being hunted for their gill rakers, which are used in Chinese medicine. Manta rays are especially valued for their gill plates, which are traded internationally. Their slow reproduction makes them more vulnerable to these threats. They are protected in international waters by the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals but face greater risks near shore. Areas where mantas gather are popular with tourists. Only a few public aquariums have the space to house them.

Etymology

The name "manta" comes from the Portuguese and Spanish word for "mantle," which is a type of trap used to catch rays. Mantas are sometimes called "devilfish" because of the horn-shaped fins near their heads, which are thought to make them look evil.

Taxonomy

Manta rays belong to the order Myliobatiformes, which includes stingrays and their relatives. The genus Manta is part of the eagle ray family Myliobatidae, grouped in the subfamily Mobulinae with the smaller Mobula devil rays. In 2018, a study of DNA and physical traits found that Mobula was paraphyletic compared to manta rays, meaning some Mobula species are more closely related to Manta than to other Mobula species. Researchers suggested treating Manta as a junior synonym of Mobula.

Manta rays evolved from bottom-dwelling stingrays, developing large, wing-like pectoral fins. M. birostris still has a small, leftover structure resembling a sting barb in the form of a caudal spine. Most rays have mouths on the underside of their heads, but mantas have mouths at the front. The jaws of mantas line up when their mouths close, while in devil rays, the lower jaw shifts backward. Manta rays and devil rays are the only ray species that have evolved to filter feed. Manta rays share traits like dorsal slit-like spiracles with the devil fish and Chilean devil ray.

The scientific names for mantas have a complicated history, with many names used for the genus (such as Ceratoptera, Brachioptilon, Daemomanta, and Diabolicthys) and species (like vampyrus, americana, johnii, and hamiltoni). All were eventually considered synonyms for the single species Manta birostris. The genus name Manta was first published in 1829 by Dr. Edward Nathaniel Bancroft of Jamaica. The specific name birostris is credited to Johann Julius Walbaum (1792) or Johann August Donndorff (1798), depending on the source. The specific name alfredi was first used by Australian zoologist Gerard Krefft, who named the manta after Prince Alfred.

A 2009 study compared the physical differences of manta populations, including color, body structure, spines, tooth-like scales, and teeth. This led to the recognition of two distinct species: the smaller M. alfredi, found in the Indo-Pacific and tropical East Atlantic, and the larger M. birostris, found in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate oceans. M. alfredi is more coastal, while M. birostris is more oceanic and migratory. A 2010 study of mantas in Japan confirmed the physical and genetic differences between M. birostris and M. alfredi.

A third possible species, initially called Manta sp. cf. birostris, grows at least 6 meters (20 feet) wide and lives in the tropical West Atlantic, including the Caribbean. In 2025, it was officially named the Atlantic manta ray (Mobula yarae).

Few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been found, as their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well like the bones of bony fish. Only three sedimentary layers with manta ray fossils are known: one from the Oligocene in South Carolina and two from the Miocene and Pliocene in North Carolina. M. hynei is a fossil species from Early Pliocene North America. Remains of an extinct species were found in the Chandler Bridge Formation of South Carolina. These were first described as Manta fragilis but later reclassified as Paramobula fragilis.

Characteristics

Manta rays have broad heads, triangular pectoral fins, and horn-shaped cephalic fins on both sides of their mouths. Their bodies are flattened horizontally, with eyes located on the sides of their heads behind the cephalic fins. Gill slits are found on the bottom part of their bodies. Their tails do not have skeletal support and are shorter than their disc-like bodies. Small dorsal fins are located at the base of the tail. Mantas can weigh up to 1,350 kg (2,980 lb). In both species, the width of their bodies is about 2.2 times their length. M. birostris can reach at least 7 m (23 ft) in width, while M. alfredi reaches about 5.5 m (18 ft). Their skin is covered in mucus. Mantas typically have a "chevron" color pattern, with dark coloring on top and pale markings on their "shoulders." Their undersides are usually white or pale, with unique dark markings that help identify individuals. Some mantas may appear mostly black (melanism) or mostly white (leucism). These color variations are caused by neutral mutations and do not affect their health. A pink manta ray was observed in Australia's Great Barrier Reef near Lady Elliot Island. Scientists believe this may be due to a genetic mutation called erythrism. This is the only known pink manta ray in the world.

The two species of manta differ in color patterns, skin texture, and teeth. M. birostris has angular shoulder markings, dark spots on its belly, charcoal-colored outlines on its pectoral fins, and a dark mouth. M. alfredi has rounded shoulder markings, ventral spots near the rear and between the gill slits, and a pale or white mouth. M. birostris has skin teeth with multiple points that overlap, while M. alfredi has evenly spaced skin teeth without points. Both species have small, square-shaped teeth on the lower jaw, but M. birostris also has larger teeth on the upper jaw. Unlike M. alfredi, M. birostris has a spine near its dorsal fin.

Mantas move through water by flapping their pectoral fins like wings. Their large, rectangular mouths face forward. Small flaps of skin cover the vestigial spiracles typical of rays. Mantas must swim continuously with their mouths open to allow water to flow over their gills. Cephalic fins are usually spiral-shaped but flatten when hunting. Their gill arches have pinkish-brown gill rakers made of spongy tissue that trap food particles. Mantas use sight and smell to find prey. They have the largest brain size and highest brain-to-body mass ratio of all fish. Their brains contain retia mirabilia, which may help regulate body temperature. M. alfredi can dive to depths over 400 meters (1,300 ft), while the Chilean devil ray, a similar species, dives to nearly 2,000 meters (6,600 ft).

Behavior and ecology

Manta rays swim differently in various places. When traveling over deep water, they swim in a straight line at a steady speed. Closer to the shore, they often rest or swim slowly. Manta rays may travel alone or in groups of up to 50. They sometimes swim with other fish, sea birds, and marine mammals. Manta rays may jump out of the water, either by leaping forward and re-entering headfirst, tailfirst, or flipping in the air. The reason for these jumps is not fully understood, but it might help them communicate, remove parasites, or get rid of small fish called remoras that attach to them.

Manta rays visit special spots on coral reefs called cleaning stations to have parasites removed. At these stations, they stay still near the coral while cleaner fish eat the parasites from their skin. These visits often happen during high tide. Some manta rays return to the same cleaning station or feeding area repeatedly, suggesting they have mental maps of their surroundings. Scientists have also found that reef manta rays form bonds with specific individuals and swim together.

Large sharks, orcas, and false killer whales may hunt manta rays. They can also carry parasitic copepods. Manta rays remove internal parasites by extending their intestines up to 30 cm (12 in) from their cloaca and squeezing them out, often while defecating. Remoras attach to manta rays for transportation and use their mouths as shelter. However, remoras can harm the manta's gills and skin and increase the effort needed for swimming.

In 2016, scientists discovered that manta rays may show signs of self-awareness. In a mirror test, they performed actions that suggested they recognized themselves in the mirror.

Manta rays are both filter feeders and predators. On the surface, they eat large amounts of zooplankton, such as shrimp, krill, and small crabs. In deeper water, they eat small to medium-sized fish. When feeding, manta rays flatten their cephalic fins to direct food into their mouths. During filter feeding, small particles are collected by the tissue between their gill arches. A single manta ray typically swims horizontally, turns 180 degrees, and feeds in the opposite direction. They may also move up and down, tilt sideways, or perform 360-degree somersaults while feeding.

Manta rays sometimes feed in groups. One manta may ride on the back of a larger manta while it feeds. In "chain-feeding," mantas line up back-to-front and swim together. These groups may form circles, with the lead manta joining the others. Larger groups, called "cyclones," can include up to 150 mantas and last for an hour. Studies show that about 27% of the diet of M. birostris comes from the surface, while 73% comes from deeper water. Mantas may also forage near the ocean floor with their cephalic fins spread apart.

During filter feeding, manta rays may cough to clear their gills, creating a cloud of waste that cleaner fish eat. Their feces are dark red and can look like blood.

Manta rays mate at different times of the year in different areas. Courtship is hard to observe, but "mating trains" are sometimes seen in shallow water. These trains involve multiple males swimming closely behind a single female. Mating may be triggered by a full moon and starts when a male follows a female swimming at about 10 km/h (6.2 mph). The male tries to grasp the female's pectoral fin with his mouth for 20–30 minutes. Once he holds it tightly, he turns upside-down and presses his body against hers. He inserts a clasper into her cloaca, where it stays for 60–90 seconds. The claspers form a tube that sends sperm into the female's oviduct. The male continues to hold the female's fin for several minutes as other males join them. After mating, the female is left with scars on her fin.

The fertilized eggs develop inside the female's oviduct. At first, the embryos are in an egg case and absorb nutrients from the yolk. After hatching, the pups receive more nutrition from a milky substance called histotroph. The pups do not have an umbilical cord or placenta and use buccal pumping to get oxygen. Brood size is usually one, sometimes two. The gestation period is about 12–13 months. When born, the pup looks like a small adult and receives no further care. In the wild, manta rays may give birth every two years, but some may reproduce annually. The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium successfully bred M. alfredi, with one female giving birth three times in a row. One pup was born after 372 days and measured 192 cm (76 in) wide and weighed 70 kg (150 lb). In Indonesia, M. birostris males mature at 3.75 m (12 ft), while females mature at 4 m (13 ft). In the Maldives, M. alfredi males mature at 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in), and females at 3 m (9.8 ft). In Hawaii, M. alfredi males mature at 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in), and females at 3.4 m (11 ft). Female mantas typically reach maturity at 8–10 years. Manta rays may live up to 50 years.

Distribution and habitat

Mantas live in tropical and subtropical oceans across the world's major seas and also swim into temperate waters. The farthest from the equator they have been seen is North Carolina, United States (31°N) and the North Island of New Zealand (36°S). They prefer water temperatures above 68 °F (20 °C), and M. alfredi is mainly found in tropical regions. Both species are pelagic, meaning they live in open ocean areas. M. birostris spends most of its time in the open ocean, moving with ocean currents and traveling to places where upwelling brings nutrient-rich water that increases food supplies.

Fish with radio transmitters have been tracked traveling up to 1,000 km (620 mi) from where they were caught. A satellite-tag study showed they can dive to depths of at least 1,250 m (4,100 ft). M. alfredi is more of a coastal species and stays near the shore more often. While they do move seasonally, these migrations are shorter than those of M. birostris. Mantas are often seen near coasts from spring to fall but move farther from the shore during winter. They stay close to the surface and in shallow water during the day, but swim to greater depths at night.

Conservation issues

The greatest danger to manta rays is overfishing. M. birostris is not found evenly across the oceans but is found in areas where it can find the food it needs. M. alfredi is even more limited in where it lives. Because of this, their populations are separated, and there is little mixing between different groups. Manta rays live a long time and have few young, so overfishing can greatly reduce local populations, and it is unlikely that other manta rays will come to replace them.

Both large-scale and small-scale fishing operations have caught manta rays for their meat and other products. They are usually caught using nets, trawling equipment, and harpoons. In the past, manta rays were caught in California and Australia for their liver oil and skin, which was used to make rough materials. Their flesh can be eaten but is not as popular as other fish. Recently, there has been a growing demand for their gill rakers, which are soft, cartilaginous parts that protect their gills. This demand has led to targeted fishing in many countries, including the Philippines, Indonesia, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and Tanzania. Each year, thousands of manta rays, mostly M. birostris, are caught and killed for their gill rakers. A study in Sri Lanka and India found that over 1,000 manta rays were sold in local fish markets yearly. However, most manta ray groups in key areas around the world have far fewer than 1,000 individuals. Fishing in places like the Gulf of California, the west coast of Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines has greatly reduced manta ray populations in these regions.

Manta rays face other human-related dangers. Because they must swim constantly to take in oxygen-rich water through their gills, they are at risk of becoming tangled in fishing gear and suffocating. Manta rays cannot swim backward, and their head fins make them more likely to get caught in fishing lines, nets, ghost nets, or loose mooring lines. When trapped, they often try to free themselves by flipping, which can cause them to become more tangled. Loose fishing lines can wrap around their bodies and cut into their skin, causing serious injuries. Manta rays are also accidentally caught in gill nets meant for smaller fish. Some are injured when they collide with boats, especially in areas where they gather and are easily seen. Other factors that may affect manta ray numbers include climate change, tourism, oil spills, and the consumption of microplastics.

In 2019, the IUCN listed the reef manta as vulnerable and the giant manta as endangered. In 2011, manta rays were protected in international waters because they were added to the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). The CMS is an international agreement that works to protect animals and their habitats that move across borders. While some countries already protected manta rays, these animals often travel through areas with little regulation, increasing their risk of being overfished. The Manta Trust is a UK-based charity that focuses on research and conservation of manta rays. Its website provides information about manta ray conservation and biology.

In 2009, Hawaii became the first U.S. state to ban the killing or capturing of manta rays. Before this, no fishing for manta rays happened in the state, but now migratory fish that pass near the islands are protected. In 2010, Ecuador passed a law that banned all fishing for manta rays and other rays, as well as keeping them as bycatch or selling them.

Relation with humans

The ancient Peruvian Moche people honored the sea and its animals. Their art often showed manta rays. In the past, people feared mantas because of their large size and strength. Sailors thought mantas could pull ships into the ocean by their anchor. This belief changed in 1976 when divers near the Gulf of California discovered mantas were calm and safe to be around. Some divers, including the author of Jaws, Peter Benchley, even took photos with them.

In 1978, the Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium received mantas that lived for four days. Later, at the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium, a male manta ray, originally from the Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium, lived about 23 years in captivity. This aquarium keeps mantas in the "Kuroshio Sea" tank, one of the world's largest aquarium tanks. Since 2018, the aquarium also cares for giant oceanic manta rays. The first manta ray born in captivity was at this aquarium in 2007, but the baby did not survive. From 2008 to 2011, four more manta rays were born there. However, in 2012, a manta named Manta became pregnant but gave birth to a stillborn pup. In 2013, Manta became pregnant again, but her mother died, and the pup also died. In August 2024, a female manta ray with an all-black body in the Kuroshio tank gave birth to two pups. The pups were black like their mother, measured 1.6 meters (5 feet) wide, and weighed 42 kilograms (93 pounds).

Currently, three mantas live at the Georgia Aquarium. One, named "Nandi," was accidentally caught in shark nets near Durban, South Africa, in 2007. After being treated and growing too large for her previous home at uShaka Marine World, she moved to the Georgia Aquarium in 2008. She lives in the "Ocean Voyager" exhibit, which holds 23,848 cubic meters (6,300,000 US gallons) of water. Another manta, "Tallulah," joined the Georgia Aquarium in 2009, and a third manta was added in 2010.

The Atlantis resort in Paradise Island, Bahamas, had a manta named "Zeus" that was studied for three years before being released in 2008.

Manta ray tourism is estimated to earn over $73 million yearly and contribute $140 million to local economies. Most of this income comes from ten countries: Japan, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mozambique, Thailand, Australia, Mexico, the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau. Divers can watch mantas at cleaning stations and during night dives, where they feed on plankton attracted to lights.

Manta ray tourism helps people learn about protecting natural resources and supports research and conservation efforts. However, too many interactions with tourists can harm mantas by disrupting their natural habitats and spreading disease.

In 2014, Indonesia banned fishing and exporting mantas because tourism is more economically valuable than killing them. A dead manta is worth $40 to $500, but tourism at a popular site can generate $1 million over a manta’s lifetime. Manta Point, near Labuan Bajo on the island of Flores, is a famous spot for seeing mantas. Indonesia has 5.8 million square kilometers (2.2 million square miles) of ocean, making it the world’s largest sanctuary for manta rays.