Environmental justice is a movement that works to fix unfair problems when poor or groups without much power are harmed by dangerous waste, taking natural resources, or other uses of land that do not help them. Many studies have shown that harm from the environment is not shared fairly. Also, groups like Black and racialized communities, as well as the LGBTQ community, are often affected more by natural disasters.

Environmental justice means that everyone, no matter their race, skin color, where they are from, or how much money they have, should be treated fairly and have a say in decisions about the environment. Over time, experts have explained many different parts of this idea.

The movement started in the United States in the 1980s. It was influenced by the civil rights movement and focused on unfair treatment of people based on race in wealthy countries. Later, the movement grew to include issues like gender, LGBTQ people, problems in other countries, and differences within groups that are already treated unfairly. As the movement made progress in wealthy countries, harmful environmental activities, like taking resources or sending waste to other countries, increased in poorer regions. Now, the movement is global, with goals supported by the United Nations. It connects with efforts to protect Indigenous lands and the right to a healthy environment.

The goal of the movement is to help people who are treated unfairly make decisions about the environment that affect their lives. The movement began with local problems where people tried to stop big companies from harming the environment. Today, these local issues are often supported by groups that work across countries.

Experts who study environmental justice have written many books and papers that help understand topics like how the environment and politics connect, laws about the environment, and ideas about fairness and protecting the planet.

Scope

Environmental justice has become a global movement that includes many ideas related to how the environment and people interact. This movement has introduced important terms such as ecological debt, environmental racism, climate justice, food sovereignty, corporate accountability, ecocide, sacrifice zones, and environmentalism of the poor. One goal of this movement is to help improve human rights laws, which have often ignored how the environment affects people's rights. Even though efforts have been made to include environmental protection in human rights laws, problems remain, especially when it comes to climate justice.

Scholars like Kyle Powys Whyte and Dina Gilio-Whitaker have expanded the discussion about environmental justice, focusing on Indigenous peoples and the effects of settler-colonialism. Gilio-Whitaker points out that the idea of distributive justice, which assumes land should be treated as a product to be bought and sold, does not match the views of many Indigenous communities. Whyte examines how colonialism has caused serious harm to the environment and the traditional ways of life and identities of Indigenous peoples.

Definitions

The United States Environmental Protection Agency explains that environmental justice means ensuring that all people, regardless of where they live or their background, are treated fairly when it comes to environmental risks and benefits. This idea is sometimes called environmental racism or environmental inequality.

Environmental justice often focuses on distributive justice, which means sharing environmental risks and benefits in a fair way. Some definitions also include procedural justice, which means giving everyone a fair and meaningful role in decisions that affect their environment. Other experts highlight recognition justice, which means acknowledging the unique challenges and experiences of communities affected by environmental harm. A just society also considers how people can use social resources to create strong, healthy communities. Over time, the idea of environmental justice has grown to include more areas, such as self-governing authority, understanding relationships between people and nature, and ensuring fair knowledge systems.

Robert D. Bullard explains that environmental justice, as a movement and a way of thinking, is about fairness. He divides fairness into three main areas: procedural fairness (how people participate in decisions), geographic fairness (how environmental harm is spread across different areas), and social fairness (how different groups are treated). In his book, Confronting Environmental Racism in the Twenty-First Century, Bullard explains how these areas apply to environmental injustices.

In non-Native communities, people often rely on laws and rules created by the Environmental Protection Agency to address unfair environmental conditions. These laws focus on how private property is owned and managed. Native Americans are not treated the same way because they are citizens of Indigenous nations, not just ethnic groups. As individuals, they follow American laws, but as nations, they have their own legal systems based on agreements made long ago and the U.S. Constitution. For Indigenous people, environmental justice is not just about laws but also about their own cultural and spiritual beliefs.

Environmental justice for Indigenous peoples is often connected to their history of colonization. Scholars like David Pellow note that while Indigenous communities have different experiences, they share common challenges from colonization. These shared experiences help create a general approach to environmental justice that still respects local differences. Ideas like the right to a clean environment, which the United Nations calls a human right, may conflict with Indigenous views because they focus on land as a resource rather than a sacred part of life.

David Pellow, drawing on ideas from anarchism, posthumanism, critical theory, and intersectional feminism, created the concept of Critical Environmental Justice (CEJ). CEJ aims to improve how environmental justice is studied by questioning old assumptions, using more interdisciplinary methods, and including perspectives beyond the social sciences. Scholars of CEJ believe that many types of inequality contribute to environmental harm.

Critical Environmental Justice differs from traditional environmental studies in four key ways:
1. Intersectionality: How different types of inequality, such as race or gender, overlap and affect people.
2. Spatial and Temporal Scale: How environmental issues affect different places and times.
3. Solutions Outside the State: Finding ways to address environmental harm that do not rely only on government.
4. Being Indispensable: Recognizing the value of all living things and their roles in the environment.

In What is Critical Environmental Justice, Pellow explains these ideas further.

History

Environmental injustices have affected people for many years, especially Indigenous communities. For example, Indigenous peoples have faced serious harm to their lands and health for centuries. The environmental justice movement began with Indigenous groups fighting for their rights to land and self-governance. One example is the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, which is sacred to the Navajo Nation. This area was once used for uranium mining and oil production, which continues to harm the health of nearby communities. Interestingly, Indigenous lands cover about 22% of the world’s land but hold about 80% of the world’s biodiversity.

The terms “environmental justice” and “environmental racism” became widely known after legal cases in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1979, a case in Texas called Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management Corporation challenged a decision to place a garbage dump in a mostly Black neighborhood. This case led to research showing that hazardous waste sites were more often located in communities of color. Although the case was lost, it helped define environmental justice as a legal concept.

In 1978, residents of Warren County, North Carolina, learned that the state planned to build a landfill to store toxic waste in their community. This area was already poor, with many Black residents. People in Warren County formed a group called Warren County Citizens Concerned About PCBs (WCCC) to protest the plan. In 1982, thousands of people protested against a landfill that would store harmful chemicals. Over 500 people were arrested during these protests. Rev. Benjamin Chavis, who was helping with the protests, later coined the term “environmental racism” while in jail. His work, along with others, helped raise awareness about unfair treatment in environmental issues.

After the protests, studies showed that race was a major factor in where hazardous waste sites were placed. These findings led to lawsuits and criticism of environmental groups for not addressing racial and economic inequality. In 1990, the EPA created the Environmental Equity Work Group to study how low-income and minority communities faced greater environmental risks. In 1992, the EPA published a report called Environmental Equity: Reducing Risks for All Communities, which marked the first official effort to address environmental justice.

In 1993, the EPA formed the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council. In 1994, the office was renamed the Office of Environmental Justice. That same year, President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order 12898, which created a group to help address environmental justice in minority and low-income communities. This order remains a key part of environmental justice laws in the United States.

In the 1970s and 1980s, groups fighting for environmental justice pushed for rules that made it more expensive to dispose of dangerous waste. This led to more hazardous waste being sent to poorer countries in the Global South. These global issues helped create the international environmental justice movement.

The first major international event for environmental justice was the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in 1991. Held in Washington, D.C., the summit included leaders from the United States and many other countries. Over 1,100 people attended, and the summit created 17 Principles of Environmental Justice. These principles were shared at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil, and are similar to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.

In 2002, groups from around the world met in Bali to prepare for the 2002 Earth Summit. Organizations included CorpWatch, World Rainforest Movement, and Friends of the Earth.

Environmental discrimination and conflict

The environmental justice movement works to fix unfair treatment of people and the environment caused by dangerous waste disposal, taking natural resources, taking land, and other harmful activities. This unfair treatment leads to the loss of traditions and jobs, violence (especially against women and Indigenous people), damage to the environment, and conflicts between people and groups. The global environmental justice movement began with local problems where people who protect the environment often face powerful companies from other countries. These local problems are now influenced by groups that work across countries to support environmental justice.

Unfair treatment of the environment can affect people in many ways. In the United States, race is the most important factor in where harmful environmental effects are placed. In other countries, poverty or social groups like caste in India are important factors. In some countries, being part of a tribe also matters. Scholars Laura Pulido and David Pellow say that recognizing environmental racism, which comes from long-standing systems that favored white people over others, is important to the movement. These systems still affect how people relate to nature and work.

Environmental racism is a serious and complicated problem that affects communities worldwide. It is a type of unfair treatment that happens because of race, class, and the environment. At its core, environmental racism means people of color are more likely to live near dangerous things like pollution, toxic waste, and other risks. This problem has a long history, with examples from the early 1900s. For example, in the United States, "redlining" made it hard for communities of color to get loans or insurance, often forcing them to live in polluted areas.

These communities are often near factories, waste sites, and other places that pollute the air and water. Today, environmental racism remains a major issue, with low-income communities and communities of color facing more pollution and risks. This can cause serious health problems, like higher rates of asthma, cancer, and other illnesses. Fixing environmental racism needs many solutions that address the social, economic, and political causes behind it. In the United States, the Low Country Alliance for Model Communities (LAMC) helps people in North Charleston, South Carolina, by using research and working together to solve health and environmental problems.

Environmental justice scholars from Latin America and other regions say it is important to understand this issue through the idea of decolonization. This means that environmental racism comes from past actions by Western countries and continues today through unfair systems.

As environmental justice groups have become stronger in countries like the United States, the harmful effects of making products have moved to the Global South, where rules are less strict and waste disposal is cheaper. In the 1980s and 1990s, the United States sent more toxic waste to other countries. Many of these countries lack proper systems to handle the waste, and people there are not told about the dangers they face.

One example is the Khian Sea waste disposal incident. Contractors from the United States illegally dumped waste from a Pennsylvania incinerator on a beach in Haiti after other countries refused to accept it. After more than ten years of discussion, the waste was finally sent back to Pennsylvania. This event helped create the Basel Convention, which controls how toxic waste moves between countries.

Countries in the Global South often face the worst effects of making products and the overuse of resources in Western countries. This is made worse by changes in land use that take land away from small farms and give it to large companies for things like farming, mining, or conservation. Taking land in the Global South is driven by ideas that favor free markets and differences in laws, land prices, and rules that make these countries attractive for foreign investments. This land use harms Indigenous people’s lives and traditions. Fighting land use changes is harder because communities already struggle to meet basic needs.

Taking natural resources is a major example of unfair treatment linked to past colonial actions. Many studies show that marginalized communities, often Indigenous groups, are more likely to suffer from the bad effects of taking resources. Communities near valuable resources often face a "resource curse," where they deal with environmental harm and a short-term economic boom that leads to instability and poverty. Indigenous communities near valuable resources are often forced to leave their homes. Power imbalances between companies and communities lead to unfair decisions where local people cannot properly take part in choices that affect their lives.

Studies also show that taking resources like minerals, wood, and oil can cause violence in communities where mining happens. In Canada, it was found that mining and projects like pipelines are linked to missing and murdered Indigenous women. The Environmental Justice Atlas, which records environmental justice conflicts, shows many cases where Indigenous people face violence because of resource extraction.

Unequal exchange describes the unfair trade relationship between countries in the Global North and the Global South. This means trade between these groups is not equal, with Global North countries gaining more benefits. This happens because of differences in labor costs, technology, and access to resources. Unequal exchange looks at trade through the idea of decolonization: past systems of power have created a trade system where Northern countries trade knowledge and technology at high prices for natural resources, materials, and labor at low prices from Southern countries. This system is kept in place by rules like patents, trade laws, and price controls set by groups like the World Bank or the International Monetary Fund, where Northern countries have most of the power. Unequal exchange continues old systems of control and causes unfair treatment and exploitation.

In environmental law

A major problem for minority groups trying to achieve environmental justice is the high cost of fighting to change systems that allow companies to release harmful waste in areas where many minorities live. These efforts often require expensive legal actions to stop unfair treatment and pollution. In the United Kingdom, rules require the person bringing a case to pay the legal costs of the opposing side, which makes it harder for low-income minority groups to afford these expenses. Additionally, environmental justice groups must sue the government to hold companies accountable for breaking pollution laws or failing to enforce waste disposal rules. This process often involves very high legal costs that many people cannot afford. For example, between 2005 and 2009, 56% of 210 judicial review cases did not move forward because of these costs.

Relationships to other movements and philosophies

Climate change and climate justice are important topics when talking about environmental justice and how it affects communities. Air pollution and water pollution are major causes of climate change. These issues can lead to extreme weather, more rain, and rising sea levels. Because of this, some communities are more at risk from events like floods and droughts. These events can cause food shortages and increase the chances of diseases linked to water, food, or infection. Today, more than 80% of wastewater worldwide is not treated before being released into the environment. High-income countries treat about 70% of their wastewater, according to UN Water.

It is expected that climate change will most strongly affect people who are already vulnerable.

Climate justice has been shaped by environmental justice, especially by grassroots efforts focused on fairness.

Marine biologist Ayana Elizabeth Johnson describes ocean justice as the place where ocean conservation meets fairness. She asks: Who suffers most from flooding and pollution? Who benefits from conservation efforts? As sea levels rise and storms become stronger, these questions will become more urgent, and fairness must be central to how societies respond.

In December 2023, the Biden administration released a strategy report focused on improving ocean justice. The report’s main goals include:
– Fixing past wrongs for people who depend on the ocean but have contributed little to environmental harm, such as Indigenous peoples, African Americans, and Hispanic and Latino Americans.
– Using the knowledge of Indigenous people and marine communities to restore ocean justice and support ocean conservation.

Environmental groups supported the strategy. Beth Lowell, vice president of Oceana, said, "Offshore drilling, fisheries management, and reducing plastic pollution are just a few areas where these voices are needed."

The official report included examples of past efforts to follow these principles. One example is Mai Ka Po Mai, a strategy for managing the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument near the Hawaiian Islands, created after working with Native communities.

Compared to general environmentalism, environmental justice focuses more on the lives of everyday people and is rooted in grassroots efforts. Environmental justice advocates say mainstream environmental movements have sometimes been racist and elitist. This is because the environmental movement started with White men. People of color were not allowed in national and state parks until 1964, making it hard for them to join the movement. This led to White environmental activists ignoring issues like environmental racism. Although more people of color have joined the movement, a 2018 study found that people of color make up only 20% of staff in environmental organizations, even though they are 36% of the U.S. population. This shows that challenges still exist.

Environmental justice and degrowth are seen as movements that share goals. Both aim to change how societies manage resources and the environment to be more sustainable and fair. Scholars say degrowth can support environmental justice by limiting resource use and reducing material extraction. Building strong relationships between the two movements is seen as important to achieving their goals. Because of this, some people suggest working together between degrowth and environmental justice.

However, some scholars from the Global South say there are differences in goals and methods between degrowth and environmental justice. Degrowth’s focus on reducing consumption has been criticized as being too focused on Western ideas and not suitable for communities in other parts of the world. Scholars say more research is needed, such as studying how ecological stress is shared with the Global South, how degrowth policies might work, and how both movements can share common goals. They also say degrowth proposals should better support environmental justice efforts in the Global South.

Many people in the Reproductive Justice Movement see their work as connected to environmental justice, and vice versa. Loretta Ross describes reproductive justice as the right of any woman to decide her own reproductive future. She says this depends on the conditions in her community, which include issues like where toxic waste is placed and the pollution of food, air, and water.

In the 1980s, Mohawk midwife Katsi Cook started the Mother’s Milk Project to address the harm caused by toxic contamination in the bodies of women and their children in the Akwesasne community. This project shows how environmental and reproductive justice are linked. Cook said, "At the breasts of women flows the relationship of those generations both to society and to the natural world."

Ecofeminism explores the connection between environmentalism and feminist ideas. It is not the same as studying how women’s health is affected by the environment. Sarah Buckingham explains that ecofeminism is based on the idea that "women’s equality should not come at the cost of harming the environment, and neither should environmental improvements come at the cost of women." Ecofeminism comes from feminist theory, spiritual beliefs, animal rights, social ecology, and movements against nuclear weapons and militarism. Because ecofeminism covers many topics, it has been criticized for being unclear and not effective in solving climate problems.

Feminist researchers who work in environmental groups or take part in debates often focus on ecofeminist ideas. Examples include the National Women’s Health Network’s research on industrial and environmental health, critiques of reproductive technology and genetic engineering by FINRRAGE, and critiques of environmental approaches to population control by the Committee on Women, Population, and the Environment.

Around the world

Environmental justice campaigns have started from local issues around the world. The Environmental Justice Atlas recorded 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020. Many more conflicts were not recorded.

Mining for cobalt and copper in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has caused environmental injustice and conflicts, including:
• Mutanda mine
• Kamoto mine
• Tilwezembe mine

Conflict minerals mined in the DRC continue to cause armed conflict.

Mining for gold and other minerals in Ethiopia has led to environmental injustice and conflicts, including:
• Lega Dembi mine: Thousands of people were exposed to mercury by MIDROC corporation. This caused poisoned food, the death of livestock, and many miscarriages and birth defects.
• Kenticha mine

Since gaining independence in 1963, Kenya has focused on protecting the environment. Environmental activists like Wangari Maathai defended natural resources and often faced conflicts with the government led by Daniel Arap Moi. Rapid urbanization in Nairobi has caused environmental problems, such as the loss of public spaces like Uhuru Park and Nairobi National Park to make room for projects like the Standard Gauge Railway and Nairobi Expressway. Environmental lawyer Kariuki Muigua has worked to promote environmental justice and legal protection. He wrote the Environmental Justice Thesis, which highlights Kenya’s progress in this area.

Between 1956 and 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in the Niger Delta. This is 50 times more than the amount spilled in the Exxon Valdez disaster. Indigenous people in the region have lost their livelihoods due to these environmental issues. They have not received benefits from the oil extracted from their lands. Environmental conflicts in the Niger Delta have worsened existing conflicts.

The Ogoni people, who are indigenous to Nigeria’s oil-rich Delta region, have protested the harmful effects of Shell Oil’s drilling. They have also criticized human rights abuses by the Nigerian government and Shell. Their international appeal grew after the 1995 execution of nine Ogoni activists, including Ken Saro-Wiwa, who founded the nonviolent Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP).

Under colonial and apartheid governments in South Africa, thousands of Black South Africans were removed from their ancestral lands to make room for game parks. Earthlife Africa was formed in 1988, becoming Africa’s first environmental justice organization. In 1992, the Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF), a nationwide group that coordinates environmental activists and organizations, was created. By 1995, the network had 150 member organizations. By 2000, it had over 600 members.

After the African National Congress (ANC) was elected in 1994, the government supported environmental justice efforts. The ANC noted that poverty and environmental damage are closely linked in South Africa. The ANC promised to address environmental inequalities and injustices as part of its post-apartheid rebuilding plan. The new South African Constitution, finalized in 1996, includes a Bill of Rights that guarantees South Africans the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being. It also ensures the environment is protected for future generations through measures that:
1. Prevent pollution and harm to nature
2. Promote conservation
3. Ensure sustainable use of natural resources while supporting economic and social development

South Africa’s mining industry produces the most solid waste, making up about two-thirds of the country’s total waste. Many mine workers have died in accidents over the last century. Diseases like asbestosis have caused deaths and long-term health problems. People living near mines often face poor air and water quality. Noise, dust, and dangerous equipment near mines can threaten safety. These communities are often poor and Black, with little control over where mines are built. The National Party introduced a Minerals Act that addressed environmental concerns, such as worker safety and land restoration. In 1993, the Act required all new mines to prepare an Environmental Management Program Report (EMPR) before starting operations. These reports were meant to help mining companies identify possible environmental impacts and plan for management.

In October 1998, the Department of Minerals and Energy released a White Paper titled A Minerals and Mining Policy for South Africa. It included a section on environmental management. The White Paper stated that the government will ensure the development of mineral resources happens within a framework of sustainable development and in line with national environmental policies. It also emphasized the need for a cost-effective and competitive mining industry.

Noah Diffenbaugh and Marshall Burke studied inequality in Asia and found that economic inequality and global warming are connected. For example, globalization and industrialization increased the risk of global warming. At the same time, industrialization allowed wealth inequality to continue. New Delhi, a major industrial center in India, has significant wealth gaps. Countries like Sweden and Norway may benefit from warmer temperatures, but many of the world’s poorest countries are even poorer than they would have been without global warming.

In China, factories produce harmful waste like nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide, which pose health risks. Journalist Fred Pearce noted that most air monitoring in China focuses on one or two pollutants, such as particulates, nitrogen oxides, or sulfur dioxide. Studies often look for links between these pollutants and health issues like respiratory disease and heart problems. China is responsible for about one-third of the world’s human-made sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulate pollution. The Global Burden of Disease Study estimates that 1.1 million Chinese people die each year from air pollution, about one-third of the global total. The economic cost of these deaths is estimated at 267 billion yuan (US$38 billion) per year.

Environmental conflicts in Indonesia include:
• The Arun gas field, where ExxonMobil’s development of a natural gas export industry contributed to the conflict in Aceh. Separatist fighters led by the Free Aceh Movement fought for independence from the central government. The government took billions in gas revenue from Aceh without providing much benefit to the region.

Transnational Movement Networks

Environmental Justice Networks that started in the United States grew to include many countries and became Transnational Networks for Environmental Justice. These networks aim to promote Environmental Justice worldwide and protect people everywhere from unfair environmental harm. Below are some major Transnational Social Movement Organizations.

• Amazon Watch – works to protect the rainforest and the rights of Indigenous peoples in the Amazon Basin in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil.
• Basel Action Network – helps stop the dumping of dangerous waste from wealthy countries to poorer, less developed countries.
• [1] – a group of activists and researchers who study and report on environmental justice issues globally.
• Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade (EJOLT) – a global project supported by the European Commission. It includes groups and universities from 20 countries in Europe, Africa, Latin America, and Asia. These groups create case studies, connect organizations worldwide, and build a global map of environmental justice issues.
• GAIA (Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance) – works to find safer ways to dispose of waste instead of burning it. This group operates in over 77 countries.
• GR (Global Response) – teaches activists and workers how to protect human rights and the environment.
• Global Witness – an international group that investigates and shares information about environmental and human rights problems, corruption, and conflicts linked to the use of natural resources.
• Greenpeace International – the first organization to become a global leader in Environmental Justice. Greenpeace raises awareness about the worldwide trade of toxic waste.
• Health Care without Harm – works to improve public health by reducing the environmental harm caused by the healthcare industry.
• Indigenous Environmental Network – a group in North America made up of Indigenous organizations that protect the environment and support sustainable development.
• International Campaign for Responsible Technology – works to hold companies and governments accountable for how electronics are used and disposed of, and how this affects the environment.
• International POPs Elimination Network – works to reduce and stop the use of harmful chemicals called persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• NDN Collective – an Indigenous-led group that supports Indigenous communities and campaigns like "Land Back," which helps return Indigenous lands to Indigenous people.
• PAN (Pesticide Action Network) – works to replace dangerous pesticides with safer alternatives for the environment.
• Red Latinoamericana de Mujeres Defensoras de Derechos Ambientales – a group in Latin America that supports women who protect the environment and defend their rights.

Global Environmental Activism and Policy

Global environmental inequality shows that people who are most vulnerable are more likely to suffer from environmental harm caused by global capitalism and land use. Studies show that these groups have led the way in connecting human rights and environmental issues in activism and policy because they are directly affected by these problems. It is important for environmental rules to recognize the value of global grassroots movements, led by Indigenous women and women from the Global South, in helping organizations like the United Nations create fair environmental policies. Recently, the United Nations has started to include the knowledge of Indigenous women and the work of women in vulnerable situations when addressing environmental health issues. More research by scientists and looking at environmental problems through a gender-focused perspective are needed for the United Nations and other groups to create policies that support the women who lead the environmental justice movement.

Outer space

Over recent years, social scientists have started to study outer space using an environmental viewpoint. Klinger, an environmental geographer, examines the environmental aspects of outer space through the ideas of different groups in the field of geopolitics. From a traditional geopolitical perspective, for example, people exploring outer space show competition and conflict between countries. In this view, outer space is a valuable resource used to increase a country's power and has strategic importance. From the perspective of environmental geopolitics, the idea of sustainable development has become a shared goal among countries. Because of this, countries give some power to international agreements and global groups to manage environmental issues. These shared actions also happen in how humans use outer space, meaning that only powerful countries can act to protect the interests of less powerful countries. This shows that environmental justice is not fully achieved in environmental geopolitics.

Human activity in outer space is connected to the environment because changes to Earth's environment, such as local effects from launch sites, are needed to reach outer space. Space-based technologies are developed to study Earth's environment, and spacecraft are used to explore space or land on the Moon. Different groups have competing plans for how to use this large area, so the ownership of these environmental effects is controlled by political power and relationships. This means that human activity in outer space is related to the idea of environmental justice.

On Earth, the way countries handle environmental issues in outer space is directly connected to environmental justice. The launching of spacecraft and the effects of these launches on the environment, as well as the impact of space-related technologies and facilities on human society, are important. Since these processes depend on industry, infrastructure, and information networks and happen in specific places, they often involve local governments.

Rockets are usually launched in areas where damage from explosions can be controlled, often in open and uninhabited areas. Even though these places are not home to people, other life forms exist there, helping to keep the local ecosystem balanced. Harmful particles from rocket launches can cause acid rain, harm plants and animals, reduce food production, and create other dangers.

Space activities also cause environmental injustice on a global scale. Spacecraft are the only major source of pollution in the stratosphere, which comes mostly from launches by wealthy countries in the northern hemisphere. These countries often face the environmental effects of this pollution.

Environmental injustice is also shown by the lack of research into how space activities affect communities and ecosystems downstream, and by the poor tracking of pollutants in natural systems.

Although space-based technologies are used to monitor natural disasters and pollution, access to these tools and data is uneven between and within countries, making environmental injustice worse. Powerful countries using these technologies can influence policies and institutions in less powerful countries, changing land-use rules in ways that help or harm certain groups. For example, after the first report in the 1980s about using satellite images to track rainforest deforestation, several environmental groups became influential and helped change policies in Brazil.