Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that believes all living things have value on their own, not just because they help humans. It suggests that human societies should change to respect this idea.

Deep ecologists say that nature is made up of many interconnected relationships. The survival of one living thing depends on others in an ecosystem. They believe that harmful human actions, like destroying nature, can hurt not only people but all living things in the natural world.

A key idea in deep ecology is that the whole natural world should be treated with respect and given the right to live and thrive, not just because it helps humans. This philosophy sees Earth as a place with many different communities of life. These communities include living things and also involve ethical choices, like valuing other beings as more than just resources. The term "deep" is used because this philosophy looks closely at how humans relate to nature and reaches more thoughtful conclusions than some other environmental ideas.

Deep ecology does not support the idea that the environment should be protected only for human use. Instead, it sees the world as a whole, where humans and other parts of ecosystems work together. It supports ideas from different environmental movements, such as protecting wild areas, encouraging people to live simply, and respecting all living things.

Origins and history

In his 1973 deep ecology paper, Arne Næss explained that he was influenced by ecologists studying ecosystems around the world. He also said that his motivation to "free nature" came from spiritual and intuitive feelings. He stated, "Your motivation comes from your overall beliefs or your philosophical and religious views. When you work to protect nature, you feel you are helping something important within yourself that requires change. This motivation comes from what I call 'deeper premises.'"

In a 2014 essay, environmentalist George Sessions named three people active in the 1960s who helped shape the deep ecology movement: author and conservationist Rachel Carson, environmentalist David Brower, and biologist Paul R. Ehrlich. Sessions said the publication of Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring marked the start of the modern deep ecology movement. Næss also believed Carson was the originator of the movement, saying, "Eureka, I have found it" after reading her work.

Another event from the 1960s linked to the movement is the images of Earth taken by Apollo astronauts while in space.

Principles

Deep ecology is an idea that encourages people to think about how humans should treat nature. It is also a movement that sees the world as a whole, where all parts are connected. Deep ecologists believe that the health of the entire Earth is important for the survival of any part of it. They criticize the idea that humans are more important than nature, which they say is not common in most cultures throughout history. Deep ecology focuses on Earth-centered values, not human-centered ones, which were promoted by thinkers from the Enlightenment, such as Newton, Bacon, and Descartes. Supporters of deep ecology oppose the belief that humans are separate from nature, in control of nature, or that nature is only a resource to use. They point out that many indigenous groups lived in balance with nature for thousands of years, showing that humans do not have to harm the environment. They argue that the current way of thinking, which focuses on material things and economic growth, must change. This includes more than just ending capitalism or economic growth, as these ideas harm the Earth. Arne Næss, a leader in deep ecology, said society needs changes where reason and emotions work together. These changes should affect all parts of industrial societies, not just technology or the economy.

Deep ecologists believe that damage to the environment since the Industrial Revolution now threatens human survival and may lead to extinction. They support changes in ideas, the economy, and technology, as Næss described. Deep ecology says ecosystems can only handle damage up to a certain point, and human civilization is harming Earth's biodiversity. Some deep ecologists suggest the human population should decrease, but they support a slow, careful reduction, not sudden or extreme solutions. In 1982, Arne Næss said a global population of 100 million would be ideal, though others think 1 to 2 billion might work better. Deep ecology does not focus on traditional political sides but is seen as radical because it opposes capitalism and supports an ecological way of thinking. Unlike conservation, which tries to protect nature carefully, deep ecology says humans should not interfere with nature unless it is necessary. Deep ecologists say humans in industrial societies cause most environmental harm, even though most people in history lived in ways that did not harm the environment.

In 1985, Bill Devall and George Sessions described deep ecology with eight key ideas:
1. All life on Earth, both human and nonhuman, has value on its own, not just because it helps humans.
2. The variety of life is part of this value.
3. Humans should not reduce life diversity unless it is needed for basic human needs.
4. The well-being of all life can be achieved with fewer humans.
5. Humans have already harmed nature a lot, and this harm is getting worse.
6. Policies must change to fix problems in the economy, technology, and ideas.
7. These changes should focus on enjoying life, not just increasing wealth or comfort.
8. People who agree with these ideas have a duty to help make them happen.

Development

The term "Deep Ecology" was first used in a 1973 article written by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss. Næss described "biospherical egalitarianism-in principle," which he explained as a basic belief that seems clear and obvious. He stated that limiting this belief only to humans is called anthropocentrism, and this focus on humans has harmed the quality of life for humans themselves. Næss also said that from the perspective of deep ecology, all living things have the same right to live and grow. This right cannot be measured, and no single species has more of this right than any other species.

Aspects

In 2010, Richard Kahn supported the idea of ecopedagogy, which uses strong actions to protect the environment as a way to teach students about "earth democracy." This idea encourages people to respect the rights of all living things, including animals, plants, fungi, algae, and bacteria. Dr. Stephan Harding, a biologist, created the idea of "holistic science," which studies natural systems as a whole, not just separate parts. This approach contrasts with other types of science that focus only on physical materials and small parts.

Frijof Capra, a deep ecologist and physicist, said that deep ecology and spirituality are closely linked because understanding nature deeply is a type of spiritual awareness. Arne Næss, a deep ecologist, was influenced by the ideas of Spinoza and Gandhi, who based their beliefs on religious feelings and experiences. Although Næss saw deep ecology as a spiritual philosophy, he did not follow specific religious rules. He explained that he was sometimes called spiritual because he believed all living things have value and that some ideas about fairness are important.

Næss criticized the Judeo-Christian tradition for teaching that humans have a special role as caretakers of nature, which he thought showed a false sense of superiority. He also disagreed with the idea that nature is only valuable if it is used for productivity. However, Næss said the word "God" had too many meanings for him, but he agreed with Spinoza’s view of God as an "immanent" force—a single creative power that shapes the world through nature. He did not rule out the possibility that some Christian ideas might be true in a different way.

Joanna Macy combined Buddhist philosophy with deep ecology in her work called "The Work that Reconnects."

Criticisms

Guha and Martínez Alier criticize the four main ideas of deep ecology. First, they argue that deep ecologists focus too much on moving from a human-centered view of the environment to an earth-centered one. This, they say, makes it hard to address two major problems: overuse of resources in wealthy countries and the growth of military power. Second, they claim that deep ecology's focus on protecting wild areas supports the idea of Western countries expanding their influence. Lastly, they say that deep ecology connects environmental protection only with preserving wild spaces, which limits its radical ideas to movements in the United States.

Deep ecologists agree that overuse of resources and military growth are serious issues. However, they argue that wanting to protect wild areas is natural and not linked to Western expansion. This idea is similar to statements made by Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro, who said Brazil has the right to cut down the Amazon Rainforest because European countries have already damaged their own environments. He implied that since European countries destroyed their environments, Brazil can do the same, and deep ecological values should not apply to them.

Regarding the use of spiritual beliefs, Arne Næss explained that deep ecology believes all living things have value on their own, not just because they help humans. He noted that people from many religious and spiritual backgrounds support deep ecology, even though they base their beliefs on different values.

When Arne Næss created the term "deep ecology," he compared it to "shallow ecology," which he criticized for focusing on human needs and material wealth. He said shallow ecology’s goal is to improve the health and wealth of people in developed countries. William D. Grey believes trying to create a non-human-centered view of the world is impossible. He prefers a more practical approach. Deep ecologists, however, argue that shallow ecology (which focuses on managing resources) helps capitalism, the system that harms the environment. They say the earth-centered view is not impossible, as many cultures before the industrial revolution believed in non-human-centered values.

Social ecologist Murray Bookchin said deep ecology is misanthropic, meaning it dislikes humans. He pointed to David Foreman, a leader of the Earth First! group, who called humans a "pathological infestation on Earth." Bookchin said some people, like Foreman, support extreme actions, such as reducing the human population quickly. Deep ecologists disagree, saying their movement values both human and nonhuman life. Arne Næss suggested reducing the human population slowly over time and limiting immigration, not causing harm to humans.

Bookchin’s second criticism is that deep ecology does not connect environmental problems with systems of power and control. He says deep ecologists fail to see that humans can solve environmental issues. Deep ecologists respond that industrial society, with its class system, is the main cause of environmental harm. They believe the earth-centered view rejects social classes and power based on status. They argue the only solution is to change industrial society itself.

Daniel Botkin says deep ecology challenges ideas in Western thinking but is based on misunderstandings of science. He argues it starts with an ideology and focuses on politics and society. Botkin also criticized Næss for saying all species are equal and for being negative about species that change environments. Deep ecologists say their focus on politics and society is important because environmental harm comes from the structure of civilization, not just individual actions. They also mention scientists like Rachel Carson and Aldo Leopold as influences.

Eco-critic Jonathan Bate called deep ecologists "utopians," noting that "utopia" means "nowhere." He quoted Rousseau, who said humans have never lived in a natural state. Bate asked how humans can protect the environment when cities are everywhere.

Bate’s criticism is partly based on the idea that industrial society and its technology are natural because humans made them. Deep ecologists disagree, saying technology like nuclear weapons is not neutral. They argue that technology can be divided into types: some are fair, and others support powerful control. Historian Lewis Mumford said technology that supports large, controlled societies is harmful and must be stopped, as stated in the sixth point of the deep ecology platform.

Peter Wohlleben says the time when humans began to change nature was around 8000 BC, when farming started. This is when humans began to shape the environment to meet their needs.

Links with other philosophies

Peter Singer criticizes the belief that humans are the most important beings and supports giving animals rights. However, he disagrees with deep ecology's idea that nature has value on its own, separate from whether living things suffer. Michael E. Zimmerman connects deep ecology with feminism and civil rights movements. Nelson compares deep ecology with ecofeminism. The strongest link may be with animal rights, as supporters of these ideas say, "all life has intrinsic value."

David Foreman, who co-founded the Earth First! movement, which uses direct action, supports deep ecology. Arne Næss, a leader in deep ecology, once chained himself to rocks near Mardalsfossen, a waterfall in a Norwegian fjord, to stop a dam from being built.

Some people connect deep ecology with green anarchism. The movement is also related to cosmopolitan localism, a way to organize production by focusing on the well-being of society and the environment instead of corporate profits, overproduction, and too much consumption.

Timothy Morton, an object-oriented ontologist, discussed similar ideas in his books Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics (2009) and Dark Ecology: For a Logic of Future Coexistence (2016).

Additional sources

• Bender, F. L. 2003. The Culture of Extinction: Toward a Philosophy of Deep Ecology. Amherst, New York: Humanity Books.
• Katz, E., A. Light, and others. 2000. Beneath the Surface: Critical Essays in the Philosophy of Deep Ecology. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
• LaChapelle, D. 1992. Sacred Land, Sacred Sex: Rapture of the Deep. Durango: Kivakí Press.
• Passmore, J. 1974. Man's Responsibility for Nature. London: Duckworth.
• Clark, John P. 2014. "What Is Living In Deep Ecology?" Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy. 30 (2): 157–183.
• Hawkins, Ronnie. 2014. "Why Deep Ecology Had To Die." Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy. 30 (2): 206–273. ISSN 0832-6193.
• Drengson, Alan. "The Deep Ecology Movement." The Green Majority, CIUT 89.5 FM, University of Toronto, 6 June 2008.