The Arctic Council is a group of top leaders from different governments who work together to solve problems in the Arctic region. Right now, eight countries have control over the land inside the Arctic Circle, and these countries are part of the council: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. Other countries or groups can join as observers, and groups that represent Arctic indigenous people can join as permanent participants.

History

The first step in creating the Council happened in 1991 when the eight Arctic countries signed the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). In 1996, the Ottawa Declaration created the Arctic Council as a group to help Arctic countries work together on issues like protecting the environment and supporting development, including the involvement of Arctic Indigenous communities and other people living in the Arctic. The Arctic Council has studied topics such as climate change, oil and gas, and shipping in the Arctic.

In 2011, the Council’s member countries signed the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement, which was the first official agreement made under the Council’s leadership.

On March 3, 2022, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States announced they would not attend Arctic Council meetings led by Russia because of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. These same countries released another statement on June 8, 2022, saying they planned to continue working on a few Arctic Council projects that had already been approved, as long as Russia was not involved in leading or participating in those projects.

Membership and participation

The Arctic Council includes member states, observer states, Indigenous permanent participants, and other observer organizations.

Only countries with land in the Arctic can be members of the council. The member states are:

• Canada
• Kingdom of Denmark
• Republic of Finland
• Iceland
• Kingdom of Norway
• Russian Federation
• Kingdom of Sweden
• United States of America

Observer status is available to non-Arctic countries approved by the Council at meetings held every two years. Observers do not have voting rights. As of September 2021, thirteen non-Arctic countries had observer status. These countries are invited to most Council meetings. They may not always join projects or task forces in working groups, but this is not a major issue because few observer countries choose to participate in such detailed work.

As of 2025, observer countries included:

• Germany (1998)
• Netherlands (1998)
• Poland (1998)
• United Kingdom (1998)
• France (2000)
• Spain (2006)
• China (2013)
• India (2013)
• Italy (2013)
• Japan (2013)
• South Korea (2013)
• Singapore (2013)
• Switzerland (2017)

In 2011, the Council explained its rules for observer admission. A key rule requires applicants to "recognize Arctic States' sovereignty, sovereign rights, and jurisdiction in the Arctic" and "accept that a strong legal framework applies to the Arctic Ocean, including the Law of the Sea, and that this framework supports responsible management of the ocean."

Non-Arctic countries seeking observer status must request permission to attend each meeting. These requests are routine, and most are approved. In 2013, the European Union (EU) asked for full observer status but was not granted it because some Council members disagree with the EU’s ban on hunting seals. Although the EU has an Arctic policy and is active in the region, the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has prevented the EU from reconsidering its status.

The Council reviewed the role of observers and the rules for admission. It removed the distinction between permanent and temporary observers.

In 2023, Brazil expressed interest in joining the Arctic Council as the first non-Arctic Latin American observer.

Seven of the eight member states (excluding Iceland) have Indigenous communities living in their Arctic areas. Organizations representing Indigenous peoples can become Permanent Participants in the Arctic Council if they represent one Indigenous group in more than one Arctic state or two or more Indigenous groups in a single Arctic state. The number of Permanent Participants must always be fewer than the number of member states. This role ensures that Indigenous representatives have active participation and full consultation in the Arctic Council. This principle applies to all meetings and activities of the Council.

Permanent Participants may speak at meetings and raise points that require immediate decisions by the chairman. They must be consulted before agendas for Ministerial Meetings are set, and they may suggest additional agenda items. Before calling the Council’s twice-a-year meetings of Senior Arctic Officials, the Council must consult Permanent Participants. Although only member states can vote, the Ottawa Declaration requires that Permanent Participants be fully consulted, which is close to a formal right to block decisions if all Permanent Participants reject a proposal. This process aligns with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which emphasizes consultation and free, prior, and informed consent. Permanent Participants may also propose cooperative projects. These rights make Indigenous peoples influential in the Arctic Council compared to their often limited roles in other international organizations. The Permanent Participant status is unique because it allows Indigenous groups to sit at the same table as state delegations, which is not common in other international organizations. However, the Arctic Council’s decisions still depend on the eight member states, which must agree through consensus.

As of 2023, six Indigenous groups have Permanent Participant status. These groups are:

• The Aleut International Association (AIA), representing more than 15,000 Aleuts in Russia and the United States (Alaska).
• The Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), representing 45,000 Athabaskan peoples in Canada (Northwest Territories and Yukon) and the United States (Alaska).
• The Gwich'in Council International (GCI), representing 9,000 Gwich'in people in Canada (Northwest Territories and Yukon) and the United States (Alaska).
• The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), representing 180,000 Inuit in Canada (Inuit Nunangat), Greenland, Russia (Chukotka), and the United States (Alaska).
• The Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), representing 250,000 Indigenous peoples in the North, Siberia, and the Far East.
• The Saami Council, representing more than 100,000 Sámi in Finland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.

Although Indigenous peoples have an influential role, Permanent Participant status does not legally recognize them as distinct peoples. The Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic Council’s founding document, states that Indigenous Permanent Participants are supported by the Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples Secretariat.

Approved intergovernmental organizations, inter-parliamentary institutions (global and regional), and non-governmental organizations can also become observers.

Current observer organizations include:

• Arctic Parliamentarians
• International Union for Conservation of Nature
• International Red Cross Federation
• Nordic Council
• Northern Forum
• United Nations Development Programme
• United Nations Environment Programme
• Association of World Reindeer Herders
• Oceana
• University of the Arctic
• World Wide Fund for Nature – Arctic Programme

Administrative aspects

The Arctic Council meets every six months in the country of the current Chair for a Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) meeting. SAOs are high-level representatives from the eight member nations. These officials are sometimes ambassadors, but often they are senior foreign ministry staff responsible for organizing meetings. Representatives from the six Permanent Participants and official Observers also attend these meetings.

At the end of each two-year cycle, the Chair hosts a Ministerial-level meeting. This is the final meeting of the Council for that period. Most of the eight member nations send a Minister from their Foreign Affairs, Northern Affairs, or Environment Ministry.

A formal, although not legally required, agreement named after the town where the meeting is held summarizes the Council’s past work and future goals. These agreements cover topics such as climate change, sustainable development, Arctic monitoring, persistent organic pollutants, and the work of the Council’s five Working Groups.

Arctic Council members agreed to action points for protecting the Arctic, but most of these have not been completed.

The Chairmanship of the Council rotates every two years. The current Chair is Denmark, which holds this role until the Ministerial meeting in 2027.

• Canada (1996–1998)
• United States (1998–2000)
• Finland (2000–2002)
• Iceland (2002–2004)
• Russia (2004–2006)
• Norway (2006–2009)
• Denmark (2009–2011)
• Sweden (2011–2013)
• Canada (2013–2015)
• United States (2015–2017)
• Finland (2017–2019)
• Iceland (2019–2021)
• Russia (2021–2023)
• Norway (2023–2025)
• Denmark (2025–2027)

Norway, Denmark, and Sweden agreed on shared priorities for their chairmanships. They also created a shared secretariat from 2006 to 2013.

Each rotating Chair nation is responsible for managing the secretariat, which handles administrative tasks for the Council, such as organizing meetings, maintaining the website, and distributing reports. The Norwegian Polar Institute managed the Arctic Council Secretariat from 2007 to 2013, based on an agreement between Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. This temporary secretariat had three staff members.

In 2012, the Council began planning for a permanent secretariat in Tromsø, Norway.

• Magnús Jóhannesson (Iceland) February 2013–October 2017
• Nina Buvang Vaaja (Norway) October 2017–August 2021
• Mathieu Parker (Canada) August 2021–Present

It is expensive for Permanent Participants to attend every Council meeting, especially since meetings occur across the entire Arctic region. To help Permanent Participants achieve the Council’s goals and improve their ability to take part in meetings, the Council provides financial support to the Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat (IPS).

The IPS board decides how to use the funding. The IPS was created in 1994 under the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). It was based in Copenhagen until 2016, when it moved to Tromsø.

In September 2017, Anna Degteva replaced Elle Merete Omma as the executive secretary for the Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat.

Arctic Council working groups study Arctic issues such as sea ice loss, glacier melting, tundra thawing, increased mercury in food chains, and ocean acidification affecting marine ecosystems.

• Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP)
• Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF)
• Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR)
• Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME)
• Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG)
• Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) (since 2006)

• Arctic Biodiversity Assessment
• Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program (CBMP)
• Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
• Arctic Human Development Report

The Arctic Council also faces challenges related to its structure and responsibilities. As the Arctic region changes, the Council’s focus has expanded to include new issues, such as economic development and infrastructure. This has stretched the Council’s resources.

Some people believe the Council is taking on too many responsibilities, while others think it is naturally growing to address current issues. However, most agree that the Council’s agenda is becoming broader.

Funding is a growing problem. The Council needs more money to handle its expanding work, but its funding structure makes this difficult. The Council receives direct contributions from member states, which vary widely, and in-kind contributions, which are hard to measure. Smaller and medium-sized members, including Norway, contribute a large share of the funding. Many people working with the Council say inadequate funding limits its effectiveness. Additionally, the Council’s funding lacks transparency, as working groups have their own funding arrangements.

The Council has also experienced high turnover among representatives. Officials are often replaced or moved by member states, which removes expertise and disrupts continuity. Member states prepare their delegates to different levels, and some positions are used as career opportunities. The Council has no control over these decisions, but they affect its long-term efficiency and stability.

Security and geopolitical issues

Before signing the Ottawa Declaration, a note was added stating that the Arctic Council should not discuss issues related to military security. In 2019, United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that the Arctic region had changed and was now a place where countries compete for power. The Arctic Council often deals with security and political issues because the region has important interests for member countries and observers. Changes in the Arctic environment and the number of people involved in the Arctic Council have caused people to rethink how the council handles political matters and its role. These changes have also made people question the council’s purpose. As more attention shifts to ocean-related issues instead of land, the debate now includes questions about rules and security, which are not covered by the Arctic Council.

Some people believe the Arctic Council helps keep the region peaceful even when member countries disagree. Norwegian Admiral Haakon Bruun-Hanssen said the Arctic is likely the most peaceful place in the world. He noted that laws are followed well by member countries. Member states think that working together to share costs for developing Arctic shipping routes, research, and other activities benefits all countries involved.

For a long time, the Arctic was seen as a special place in politics. This idea, called Arctic exceptionalism, meant that the Arctic was separate from global power struggles and political conflicts. The region was far away, and the weather was harsh. Instead, people in the Arctic focused on peace and cooperation, even though some Arctic countries had been traditional rivals.

The Arctic Council is central to the idea of Arctic exceptionalism. The council formed from many efforts and compromises, including the decision to keep the region free of military activity. The council’s cooperative nature is shown in its setup, which works as a forum with clear goals and decisions made by agreement. By focusing on environmental protection and development while avoiding difficult topics like military security, the council became successful as a group that solves problems.

The Arctic Council’s gentle approach as a forum for its member countries helped it succeed. By bringing countries together, the council ensured that science and other efforts could work well and influence decisions through its many groups and networks.

Disputes over land and ocean in the Arctic have been rare. The only major land disagreement was between Canada and Denmark over Hans Island, which was resolved in 2022 by splitting the island. There are also disagreements between the United States and Canada over ocean areas in the Beaufort Sea.

Major disputes involve rights to the seabed in the Arctic’s central high seas. Climate change and melting ice have made more resources and waterways accessible. Large amounts of oil, gas, and minerals are found in the Arctic. This has led to disputes among countries. The United Nations allows countries to claim rights to resources on the seabed if they can prove the seabed is a natural extension of their land. Canada, Russia, and Denmark (through Greenland) have all submitted overlapping claims to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. Once the commission reviews these claims, Russia, Denmark, and Canada will need to negotiate how to divide their areas.

Disputes also exist about the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route. Canada claims the Northwest Passage is its internal waterway, giving it full control over which ships can travel through. The United States says the passage is an international strait, meaning any ship can travel through at any time, and Canada cannot block it. Russia claims only small parts of the Northern Sea Route are its internal waters but requires ships to get permission to travel in large areas of the Russian Arctic under international rules.

In Canada, many people are concerned about the country’s control over the Northwest Passage. A survey found that half of Canadians believe the country should assert its rights over the Beaufort Sea, while only 10% of Americans agree. New shipping routes through the Arctic could also cause conflicts. A survey showed that Canadians see the Northwest Passage as their own waterway, while other countries disagree.

In 2022, the Arctic Council faced a major challenge after Russia invaded Ukraine. The other seven member countries condemned the invasion, stopped working with Russia, and paused most of the council’s activities. This showed growing differences between Russia and Western countries in the council, making it harder for the group to work together as it had before.

Despite these problems, the council successfully passed leadership from Russia to Norway in 2023, showing it can keep working even in difficult times. This was partly because the council does not require strict rules for stopping all cooperation. Instead, it kept communication open and allowed discussions to continue, which helped restart activities later.

However, relations with Russia in the council remain tense, and questions remain about how the council will handle its relationship with Russia in the future. This period has shown that political issues are becoming more important in the council’s work. While the council originally focused on protecting the environment and development, it now deals with the effects of global politics on Arctic governance.

The number of observer countries in the Arctic Council has grown, drawing attention to other interests like economics and security. Observers, such as China, have shown interest in Arctic resources, like those in Greenland. More countries and groups with strong interests in the Arctic have made it harder for the council to act as the main group governing the region. As more non-Arctic countries join as observers, the Arctic is moving from a region focused on cooperation to one where global interests clash.

The system for observer countries in the Arctic Council has caused more political tension. Observers include non-Arctic countries like China, Japan, and South Korea, as well as organizations. China’s role as a permanent observer since 2013 caused debate among member countries. Observers cannot make decisions, but their presence has raised concerns about how non-Arctic countries might influence the council’s work. This challenges the council’s ability to govern the Arctic region effectively.