Eco-cities in the People's Republic of China are planned urban development projects designed to be examples of sustainable development. These projects aim to solve problems caused by fast urban growth, environmental harm, and limited natural resources.

The idea of eco-cities in China received a lot of attention and support from the government in the early 2000s. This was because the government wanted to deal with challenges from urbanization and reduce pollution and the use of natural resources. Through different programs and rules, the Chinese government has promoted the building of eco-cities across the country. These cities are seen as examples of how to create sustainable urban areas and support economic growth. China now has the largest eco-city development program in the world.

Most eco-city projects in China are still being built, which makes it hard to fully evaluate how well these programs work. Supporters believe these cities offer creative ways to make cities more sustainable. They may help lower pollution, use resources more efficiently, and improve life for people living in cities. However, some people have raised questions about whether these projects are effective, how much money is being used, gaps in how they are carried out, and their impact on the environment.

Concepts and trends

There is no single, official definition of an eco-city. However, these developments usually aim to reduce the use of fossil fuels, lower carbon emissions, and decrease reliance on natural resources. They also focus on protecting local ecosystems.

The creation of eco-cities in China follows a global trend in making cities more sustainable. However, these eco-cities in China also include unique features based on traditional Chinese cultural values that stress harmony with nature, such as ideas related to feng shui. Some Chinese thinkers believe that Western industrial progress helped develop industry during modern times, but Eastern civilizations, after adopting these ideas, revived traditional Chinese philosophy. This philosophy forms the foundation for modern eco-cultural efforts in China. According to this view, China must use traditional philosophy to solve modern problems by learning from the past. This idea is called "Five in One" (五位一体). Under this concept, eco-cities in China should be built using sustainable development principles that combine economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological goals. The government supports eco-cities to achieve goals like creating a harmonious society and an ecological civilization.

Some people argue that current eco-city projects in China and China’s relationship with the environment are not as connected to beliefs like Confucianism as some thinkers claim. Instead, current plans and designs may align more closely with Western ideas. This difference in thinking has influenced past and present eco-city projects, especially in urban planning.

Chinese eco-cities are usually started as test projects led by local governments, often with support from the central government. This has led to a wide variety of development strategies in different cities. In China, eco-city projects often focus on building new areas rather than improving existing cities.

Urban design in Chinese eco-cities often includes compact, mixed-use layouts to reduce urban sprawl. These designs help protect farmland for food security and promote sustainable transportation by encouraging walking, bike-sharing programs, and expanding public transit options.

Using renewable energy is a major goal in eco-city development. Solar, wind, bioenergy, and hydropower are key sources. Efforts to improve energy efficiency include recycled heat systems, smart grids, and green buildings. Recycling programs are also common in these cities.

These cities often try to attract industries that produce little carbon and test new ideas, such as circular economies, low-carbon ports, food production, and ecotourism. Environmental technology is often used to meet sustainability goals, with eco-cities serving as places to test new urban technologies.

Construction in eco-cities is usually managed through local pilot projects with support from the central government. Because of this, funding varies widely. Some projects receive strong national support and foreign investment, while others rely on local funding or a mix of sources. This variety in funding has led to different features among eco-cities, as local governments are encouraged to try new strategies.

Many eco-city projects work with international partners to get funding. This collaboration helps cities access more resources, learn from global knowledge, and improve their reputation.

A major difference between Chinese eco-city projects and global efforts is the level of central government involvement. While global eco-city projects are usually led by local governments and are separate, Chinese projects are actively supported and promoted by the central government, leading to many projects. Unlike the bottom-up approach seen in global projects, where local governments seek national approval, Chinese projects follow a top-down model, with local efforts aligned to national goals.

Because of this, Chinese eco-city projects are often larger in scale. While global eco-city efforts focus on improving existing cities, China’s projects mostly involve building new cities from scratch. This approach is driven by the need to handle rapid urbanization. These large-scale projects take longer to build and require more investment. Relying on external funding, especially for long-term and large-scale projects, has made it difficult to complete some projects.

Ecological Island Carbon Neutrality Demonstration Zones are a special type of eco-city project. These zones aim to apply eco-city policies and infrastructure to entire island communities. These projects are suited for ecologically sensitive and isolated areas, making them ideal for eco-city concepts. So far, Chongming Eco-island is the only example of this type of project in China. However, expanding this idea to other islands is still possible.

History

Because of changes in China's economy and population, eco-city construction has become a main way to develop cities. Starting in the late 1970s, China's reform and opening up caused a large movement of people from rural areas to cities, with more than 500 million people moving since the 1980s. These changes turned China into a more urban society, but they also created environmental problems and worsened climate change.

China's fast growth in heavy industries and manufacturing has caused pollution and increased greenhouse gas emissions, making China the largest producer of these gases globally. The shift to a market-based economy encouraged more people to move to cities to help the economy grow.

Building cities to support the growing population has harmed the environment. Changing natural land into cities has created heat islands and increased pollution. Building roads, buildings, and other infrastructure has also raised carbon emissions.

Cities are responsible for most of China's emissions, even though buildings in cities are usually more energy-efficient. People in cities use more energy per person than those in rural areas. Urbanization has increased China's energy needs. Just construction and energy use for buildings account for about half of China's emissions. The rise of consumer habits in China has also led to more use of natural resources, less active lifestyles, and changes in eating habits that have caused higher obesity rates and health problems. Expanding city services and infrastructure has also increased energy use and emissions.

These problems have led China to use eco-cities as a way to solve environmental and social issues from rapid urbanization, industrial growth, and economic changes. Eco-cities are now an official method to reduce the effects of urbanization and help with climate change.

Because eco-cities are strongly supported, research and interest in them have grown in China over the past 30 years. Focus has been on developing cities in a sustainable way and creating green infrastructure.

Rapid urbanization in China has created challenges but also opportunities to build eco-cities that support growth and create sustainable cities for future generations. To reduce emissions and address climate change, the Chinese government has accepted eco-cities as a way to meet these goals.

In 2005, China and the United Kingdom announced a plan to build the first carbon-neutral eco-city, called Dongtan Eco-City. This project was not completed, but it influenced other eco-city ideas in China.

In 2006, the Chinese government committed to climate issues through the 11th Five-Year Plan, which included plans for renewable energy, new rules, and support for local governments. In 2007, the 17th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party introduced the idea of a "low-carbon eco-city model" as part of a broader "eco-culture" plan. The same year, the government officially supported the idea of an "ecological civilization" and promoted eco-cities for development.

In 2008, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment started the first eco-city program. In 2009, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development introduced a low-carbon eco-city program, and in 2010, the National Development and Reform Commission launched a low-carbon city program.

The 12th Five-Year Plan encouraged eco-city development, and the 13th Five-Year Plan added requirements to build more green buildings and include eco-city projects as examples.

Government rules limit land-use changes to only approved projects. Eco-cities help reuse farmland left behind by urbanization, encouraging local migration and reducing movement to large cities.

Eco-cities are a key part of China's environmental policies and a model for other cities. They are also important for meeting goals under the Paris Agreement. Because of these policies, China now has the world's largest eco-city program.

The first eco-city project in China was announced in 2004. The planned Dongtan Eco-City in Shanghai was canceled before starting, but it inspired other cities to begin their own eco-city projects.

In 2009, China's economic stimulus package included $32.8 billion for low-carbon infrastructure, industry, and communities, helping eco-city development. By 2009, over 100 eco-city projects were announced in China. More than 90% of Chinese cities have eco-city plans, totaling over 250 projects. Most of these projects are still under construction.

Since then, some developers have combined smart technology with eco-city projects, creating "smart-eco cities." These projects use technology like large-scale 3D printing, which uses construction waste and builds faster and cheaper, and nature-based solutions to help develop eco-cities. Examples include the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City, which added smart city goals in 2013, and the Shenzhen eco-city, which used smart eco-city ideas in some areas. As of 2015, the Chinese government had announced only a few hundred pilot eco-city projects.

Programs

In China, several eco-city programs exist, but there is no single plan to manage eco-cities, and no official definition of what an eco-city is. Because the central government has not created a unified policy or guidelines, many different programs and projects have been developed. Three government agencies have started eco-city programs. These programs review applications from local governments and approve projects as nationally recognized examples. However, these programs operate separately and often compete with each other instead of working together as a single national plan. Some local governments also start eco-city projects without help or approval from national agencies.

Each program focuses on different goals. The Ministry of Environmental Protection’s eco-city program focuses on protecting the environment, such as preserving natural areas, rather than reducing energy use or carbon emissions. The National Development and Reform Commission’s low carbon city program aims to reduce carbon emissions to meet goals in the country’s Five-Year Plans. The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development’s low carbon eco-city program combines goals from other programs, emphasizing reducing carbon and energy use while also addressing pollution and social effects. This agency only recognizes new developments for its program.

Each eco-city project uses its own rules to measure success. For example, the Tianjin Eco-City project created 26 Key Performance Indicators to evaluate things like wetland protection, water quality, and green building standards. However, some local governments fail to meet their own sustainability goals, and in some cases, no measurements are taken at all.

Examples

Dongtan, located in Shanghai, was announced in 2004 as the world's first planned carbon-neutral city. The city aimed to reduce carbon emissions by 60% and energy use by 66% compared to traditional Chinese cities. Dongtan was designed to use only renewable energy, such as solar and wind power, and to generate electricity from rice husks. The city plan included a compact layout with low-energy buildings and green spaces to protect migratory birds, preserve nearby farmland, and encourage green transportation. Other plans included systems to recycle water, reduce landfill waste, and promote industries like ecotourism, environmental education, and research. The project was a partnership between China and the United Kingdom, with a goal of 400,000 residents by 2050.

However, construction of Dongtan never started, and the project was canceled within a few years of its announcement. Investors may have been discouraged by the project’s ambitious goals, such as banning fossil-fuel transportation. Concerns also arose about whether the city could create enough jobs or support itself economically. The project faced more challenges after Shanghai’s mayor was imprisoned for corruption, which slowed political support.

After Dongtan’s failure, Chongming Island, where the city was planned, began efforts to turn the island and nearby islands of Changxing and Hengsha into an eco-island using similar ideas. Some plans from Dongtan, like protecting forests and wetlands, were kept. As an eco-island, Chongming aims to balance urban growth with green technology and ecological protection on a larger scale. However, the project faces economic challenges, is government-led, and must manage fragile ecosystems and resistance from local populations. It is still in development, but policy changes in 2018 raised concerns about its future. Progress is hard to measure because goals are sometimes unclear.

Shenzhen, also called the "National Low Carbon Pilot City," was established in 1979 and became China’s third-largest city. It gained attention as China’s first "Special Economic Zone," which allowed unique policies to boost economic growth with help from foreign countries. With support from the Netherlands, Shenzhen developed green technologies and reduced carbon emissions. In 2012, other countries like the United States, Germany, France, Italy, and Australia joined the project. Each country contributed in different ways: the United States shared research and technology, Germany helped build industries, France and the United States collaborated on research, Italy worked with Germany on planning, and Australia focused on education through a joint research center.

Many changes in Shenzhen are still being developed but are sustainable and improving. Policies from China’s government, along with help from experts and workers, have driven these changes.

The Tianjin Eco-City is a joint project between China and Singapore, starting in 2008 and expected to be completed by the early-to-mid 2020s. The city uses 26 standards for performance, including sustainable materials and designs. It aims to meet 20% of its energy needs with renewable sources, recycle 60% of waste, use desalination and recycled water for half its water needs, and reduce car use by 90%. The city was built to address water challenges in an arid area.

Tianjin Eco-City is one of China’s most famous eco-city projects. It received strong government support and funding, and the government promotes it as a successful example. However, construction and population growth have not met expectations. By 2020, the city was expected to have 350,000 residents, but in 2017, only 70,000 lived there. Poor public transportation and limited job opportunities may have slowed growth.

The Caofeidian Eco-City, located in Tangshan, is a planned project with Swedish urban design firms. It began in 2007 to relocate heavy industries from Beijing and create a circular economy to manage industrial waste.

Efficacy and criticism

Eco-city projects are large-scale developments that take many years to complete. Supporters say these cities are long-term investments that may take decades to show results. However, early reports from the Chinese government show that some eco-cities have reduced their carbon intensity faster than the national average.

Some Chinese eco-cities have struggled to meet their goals. For example, the first planned eco-city in Dongtan was canceled. Caofeidian Eco-City has been called "essentially bankrupt," and Chenggong District is known as a "ghost city." Even Tianjin Eco-City, which the Chinese government calls a success, has not met its growth targets.

Funding is a major challenge for many eco-cities. These projects require large amounts of money upfront, making it hard for cities to get the needed investment. Long construction times, high costs, uncertainty about returns, and ambitious plans have discouraged investors, making some projects too expensive to continue.

Despite these challenges, more than 250 Chinese eco-city projects are still underway.

Another challenge is how these cities are governed. China’s goal to reduce climate change has led to stronger environmental policies, such as those in the 11th Five Year Plan. However, government support often comes from the top, which can make it hard for local leaders to act. National, provincial, and local governments sometimes have conflicting roles, leaving local leaders with less power. For example, the Dongtan project was stopped in 2008 due to corruption, which reduced political support for the project.

Some cities, like Shenzhen, still struggle to lower carbon emissions from transportation. From 2005 to 2021, carbon emissions from Shenzhen’s metro system increased by 9.5 megatons. Experts suggest improving public transportation efficiency and making it easier for people to use these systems instead of personal vehicles.

Many eco-cities are built with help from foreign countries or companies, such as the Shenzhen Sino-Dutch Low Carbon City and the Sino-Swedish Wuxi Eco-City. These partnerships involve sharing resources like funding and research. However, agreements about how these resources are used can be complex and vary based on priorities.

Funding and government support for eco-cities have been criticized for encouraging "greenwashing," where projects appear environmentally friendly but may not fully meet sustainability goals. Local leaders are often judged based on economic growth, which can lead to projects focusing more on economic benefits than environmental goals.

Eco-cities have also been accused of using sustainability as a marketing tool to attract investment. Some projects promote themselves as eco-friendly without making expensive, long-term changes that could conflict with economic goals. There is no clear standard for what makes a city "eco," which allows some projects to use the label for real estate marketing.

Competition between cities to attract residents and businesses has led to a focus on improving competitiveness rather than true sustainability. Some eco-cities have been criticized for using traditional development methods instead of sustainable strategies. Others rely too much on technology and economic growth plans, rather than solving deeper social issues that affect sustainability.

Studies have shown that some eco-cities may cause more harm than benefit, especially when political goals take priority over environmental ones. New construction in eco-cities can create sprawling, low-density areas that are hard for public transportation to serve, reducing walking and biking.

Some projects have been criticized for harming the environment. For example, land reclamation in certain areas has damaged coastal ecosystems. Cities like Chenzhou have been accused of destroying local mountains, and Pingliang City has been linked to pollution in local ecosystems. The placement of some cities, like Tianjin and Caofeidian, in water-stressed regions may worsen groundwater shortages. Dongtan’s planned location was near a sensitive wetland, which could have disrupted that ecosystem.

Critics say many eco-cities only make small improvements over traditional cities. For example, Tianjin Eco-City’s goal of 20% renewable energy use was seen as only slightly better than the national target of 15% renewable energy by 2015.