Agroforestry, also called agro-sylviculture or forest farming, is a way to manage land by growing trees together with crops or grass for animals. It mixes farming and tree-growing methods. As a system that uses many different plants and animals together, agroforestry can produce wood, fruits, nuts, other plants that can be eaten, mushrooms, plants used for medicine, plants that are grown for decoration, animals, and products from animals. These items come from both plants and animals that are raised by people and those that live naturally.

Agroforestry can help people, the environment, and communities. It is part of farming that protects the Earth and keeps resources for the future. In addition to growing food, agroforestry helps make farms more productive, improves the health of the land, reduces risks for farmers, makes farms look nicer, increases income, stops soil from washing away, provides homes for animals, reduces pollution, helps manage waste from animals, increases the variety of living things, improves the quality of soil, and stores carbon from the air.

Agroforestry is often used in tropical areas, especially on small farms where families grow food for themselves. It is especially important in parts of Africa south of the Sahara. Because it has many benefits, such as helping soil keep nutrients and reducing the effects of dry weather, it is also used in the United States and Europe.

Definition

Agroforestry is a system that grows multiple plants together by intentionally combining trees with crops or grasses on the same land. These systems are carefully managed to help plants and animals work well together, and they copy how forests grow. Adding tree species to farming areas starts a process where different plants grow over time, similar to natural forests. Therefore, agroforestry is a practical use of agroecology.

Agroforestry has similar ideas to growing different crops together, but it can also include complex forests with many layers and many different plant types. It can use plants like legumes that help the soil get more nitrogen. Many farmers who use these methods do not realize their land use is called "agroforestry," showing that more education is needed to help more people use these sustainable practices.

History and scientific study

The term "agroforestry" was created in 1973 by Canadian forester John Bene. However, the idea of combining agriculture and trees has been used for thousands of years. Scientific studies about agroforestry began in the 20th century when researchers studied how different cultures used plants. For many years, Indigenous groups who lived near forests practiced agroforestry without formal training. For example, Indigenous people in California burned oak forests and other areas to help maintain healthy trees and improve habitats. Similarly, Native Americans in the eastern United States shaped their environment by creating a mix of woodland areas, orchards, and garden-like spaces.

Agroforestry in tropical regions has a long history. One common example is "tropical home gardens," which have been grown continuously for centuries. A home garden in Central America might include 25 different types of trees and crops on just one-tenth of an acre. These gardens are traditional systems developed by farmers over time without formal research or support. They are known for having many different types of useful plants. Trees and palms grow on top to provide food, fuel, and shade. Shrubs grow below them to produce fruit or spices. Below that, root vegetables, medicinal herbs, beans, and other plants grow.

In 1929, J. Russell Smith wrote a book called Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture. He suggested that American farming should change in two ways: by using land that cannot grow crops for tree farming and by replacing grain used for animal food with tree-grown crops. Smith noted that the honey locust tree, which produces pods that can be used as animal feed, had great potential. The book's subtitle later inspired the term "permaculture."

Most scientific studies on agroforestry focus on systems with simple interactions, such as hedges or trees growing with one type of crop. Agroforestry systems vary widely, and their benefits differ. Modern science understands agroforestry as a practice that builds on traditional methods used by Indigenous and local communities, who lived closely with nature for many generations.

In 2025, 91 countries and regions reported that 55.4 million hectares of land were used for agroforestry. Most of this land (39.3 million hectares) is in Asia, especially in South and Southeast Asia. India and Indonesia together account for nearly all of the land in that region and 70% of the global total.

Benefits

Agroforestry systems offer many benefits. They can increase farm productivity and profits, reduce soil erosion, create homes for wildlife, manage animal waste, improve soil quality, support more plant and animal life, and help store carbon in the soil. These systems can be better than traditional farming or forest methods. They provide more food, help people and the environment, and offer a wider variety of natural resources. These advantages depend on good farming practices, such as choosing the right trees and regularly trimming them.

Agroforestry helps protect biodiversity. It creates more varied habitats than regular farming because trees provide spaces for many living things above and below the ground. This variety supports natural processes that help ecosystems stay healthy. For example, the number of bat and bird species in agroforestry areas can be similar to that in natural forests. Although agroforestry may not have as many types of plants as forests, it still offers food and shelter for animals. It also helps protect rare plant species by keeping them safe in stable environments. Agroforestry areas can connect different habitats, which helps animals and plants move and survive better.

Groundcover plants, like grasses, in agroforestry systems help prevent soil from being washed away. These plants cover the soil better than short-term farming methods, which reduces erosion. Keeping soil covered is important for stopping erosion. Agroforestry can also improve water quality by reducing the amount of nutrients and soil that run off into water sources. Trees help slow water flow and reduce evaporation, allowing more water to soak into the soil. Compared to fields with only rows of crops, agroforestry systems can take up more nutrients from the soil, which reduces the chance of nutrients polluting nearby streams.

Agroforestry systems help make farming more sustainable in several ways. They allow farmers to grow more types of products, like firewood, medicine plants, and different crops, which can increase their income. Better soil health and more crop variety help ensure enough food and better nutrition, even during bad weather. Restoring soil and managing water use can improve land quality. Using fewer chemicals, such as fertilizers, and having more plants to control weeds can also help.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization’s The State of the World’s Forests 2020, using agroforestry and sustainable farming methods, restoring soil in damaged areas, eating healthier foods, and reducing food waste are all important steps that need to be done more widely. Companies involved in farming should stop using products that cause deforestation and make promises to avoid harming forests.

Storing carbon is an important benefit of agroforestry. Trees in these systems can store carbon in the soil and in their wood. Like new forests, these trees can help replace carbon lost when forests are cut down. They also provide food and other products. How long trees are grown and how their products are used affect how much carbon is stored. Agroforestry can reduce the need to cut down natural forests by providing wood and other forest products.

Agroforestry helps reduce the effects of climate change and helps people adapt to it. A study in Kenya showed that using agroforestry helped small farmers store more carbon and improve their lives at the same time. In this case, keeping many types of trees and considering how land is used and farm size were important factors.

Many poor farmers use agroforestry to deal with climate change. A study by the CGIAR research program found that more than half of 700 households in East Africa started planting trees as part of new farming practices. These trees were planted alongside crops like fruit, tea, coffee, oil, animal feed, and medicine plants. Agroforestry was one of the most common ways people adapted, along with using better crop types and growing different crops together.

Tropical

Trees in agroforestry systems can produce wood, fruits, nuts, and other useful products. Agroforestry practices are most common in tropical regions, especially in small farms in areas like sub-Saharan Africa.

Research in Zambia with the leguminous tree Faidherbia albida showed that maize grown with these trees and fertilizer reached 4.0 tonnes per hectare. This is much higher than the average maize yield of 1.1 tonnes per hectare in Zimbabwe.

A well-studied agroforestry system is the Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System in Honduras. This area used to rely on slash-and-burn farming, but heavy rains washed away soil, leaving infertile land. The United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) introduced a system that includes these steps:

• Thin and prune secondary forest trees, leaving some beneficial trees, especially those that add nitrogen to the soil. These trees help prevent erosion, keep soil moist, provide shade, and add organic matter.
• Plant maize in rows. This is a traditional local crop.
• Harvest dried maize plants and plant beans. Maize stalks support climbing bean plants. Beans add nitrogen to the soil.
• Plant pumpkins during this time. Their large leaves and horizontal growth provide shade and help retain moisture. They do not compete with beans for sunlight.
• Rotate crops every few seasons by grazing cattle. This adds nutrients to the soil through manure and prevents trees from regrowing too much.
• Repeat the process.

The kuojtakiloyan of Mexico is a polyculture system that grows avocadoes, sweet potatoes, cinnamon, black cherries, citrus fruits, gourds, macadamia, mangoes, bananas, and sapotes. The term kuojtakiloyan means “useful forest” or “forest that produces.” This system is used by indigenous people in the Sierra Norte region of Puebla, Mexico. It provides food, medicine, fuel, and other resources for local communities while protecting biodiversity. The system is based on traditional knowledge from the Nahua and Totonaku peoples.

The kuojtakiloyan also grows wild mushrooms and herbs. The jonote tree is planted for its fibers, which are used in basketry. Bamboo, which grows quickly, is used for building. Shade-grown coffee is also grown nearby. Shade helps produce high-quality coffee. Local people support stingless bees by planting the plants they pollinate. From bees, they get honey, pollen, wax, and propolis.

In agroforestry, crops are grown under tree canopies. These crops can tolerate shade or the trees have open canopies. Shade-grown coffee is an example. This method reduces weeding costs and improves coffee quality.

In Sumatra, agroforestry systems that mix robusta coffee with durian and papaya help protect areas like Gunung Leuser National Park.

Alley cropping alternates crop strips with rows of closely spaced trees or hedges. Trees are pruned before planting crops, and the cut leaves are used as mulch to add nutrients. Hedges act as windbreaks and reduce erosion. In tropical regions of the Americas, species like Inga are used for alley cropping. This method also helps control weeds.

Syntropic agroforestry is an organic system developed by Ernst Götsch in Brazil. It mimics natural ecosystems to create productive forests that provide food and other resources. The system uses:
– Mixing perennial and annual crops densely
– Cutting and composting fast-growing plants to build nutrients
– Improving water retention in soil

These systems began in Brazil but have been tested in temperate regions for soil restoration. The Agenda Gotsch organization promotes these systems. Benefits include better water absorption in soil, improved productivity on poor land, and better soil temperature control.

Taungya is a system from Burma. Early in tree planting, crops are grown between young trees. As trees grow, crops become more shade-tolerant. Thinning trees helps maintain sunlight.

Itteri agroforestry systems in Tamil Nadu involve managing trees and shrubs alongside herbaceous plants. These systems are often found near villages, roads, and fields.

Bamboo-based agroforestry systems in central India, such as Dendrocalamus strictus with sesame and chickpea, have been studied for improving productivity in dry areas.

In 2019, the “Global EverGreening Alliance” started a project to reduce climate change by restoring land to absorb 20 billion tons of carbon annually by 2050.

Shamba is an agroforestry system in East Africa, especially Kenya. It combines crops like bananas, beans, yams, and corn with timber, beekeeping, medicinal herbs, mushrooms, and livestock feed.

Native Hawaiians used agroforestry adapted to tropical islands, growing breadfruit and coconut. This practice helped support population growth and social cooperation. Recently, efforts have been made to reintroduce these systems in Hawaii and Maui through collaboration between scientists, leaders, and landowners.

Temperate

Agroforestry was first developed in tropical agriculture. However, its many benefits, such as improving nutrient cycles and helping reduce the effects of droughts, have led to its use in the United States and Europe.

The United States Department of Agriculture identifies five agroforestry methods for temperate climates. These include alley cropping, forest farming, riparian forest buffers, silvopasture, and windbreaks.

Alley cropping is used in temperate climates. Strip cropping is similar to alley cropping because both involve alternating trees with crops. The difference is that alley cropping uses single rows of trees, while strip cropping uses wide strips of trees or shrubs. Alley cropping helps provide nutrients to crops through fallen leaves. Strip cropping can also produce fruits or nuts while protecting nearby crops from soil erosion and strong winds.

In forest farming, valuable crops are grown under the shade of carefully managed trees. This method is sometimes called multi-story cropping or home gardening in tropical areas. It requires some level of management, which sets it apart from simply collecting wild plants from forests.

Riparian buffers are permanent strips of vegetation along or near waterways or ditches where water flows. These buffers help prevent soil and nutrients from entering water sources.

In silvopasture systems, trees benefit animals such as cattle, goats, or sheep that graze on grasses growing under the trees.

The dehesa or montado system in Spain and Portugal is an example of raising pigs and bulls over large areas.

Windbreaks reduce wind speed near crops. This helps increase crop yields by reducing drying and preventing crops from falling over during strong winds.

Since the 1950s, four out of every five traditional Swiss orchards with tall trees (called Hochstammobstgärten) have disappeared. A test of agroforestry used tall trees, such as walnut (Juglans regia) and cherry (Prunus avium), alongside annual crops. Farmers planted 40 to 70 trees per hectare. Yields decreased slightly as tree height and leaf cover increased. However, total production per area was up to 30% higher than in systems with only one type of crop.

Other tests involved growing Populus tremula trees for biofuel at 52 trees per hectare. These were planted with alternating grazing pastures and crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat, strawberries, and fallow land. Modern apple and sour cherry varieties were also grown with shrubs like dogrose, Cornus mas, and Hippophae rhamnoides planted between rows. These shrubs were grown alongside various vegetables.

Urban

Urban agroforestry is the use of agroforestry methods in cities and suburbs, where natural processes are often limited. It involves intentionally combining trees, shrubs, and crops in planned areas like backyards, parks, and streets. These systems work together to produce food and other useful products.

According to the United Nations, urban agroforestry systems can provide many benefits that help cities become healthier and more resilient. These include improving how well cities handle environmental challenges, supporting more plant and animal life, and boosting the well-being of people living there.

Trees help reduce the effects of extreme heat and lower temperatures in cities by shading areas and releasing water vapor through their leaves. For example, the "Green Corridor project" in Lisbon showed that local temperatures dropped by 3°C. Adding agroforestry systems to rooftop gardens can also reduce the need for air conditioning by up to 20%. These systems help manage rainwater by increasing the amount of ground that can absorb water, which reduces flooding. Additionally, trees absorb harmful substances like nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and dust, while producing oxygen, as shown by research.

Including a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and crops creates homes for many species, such as bees, birds, and small animals, which increases biodiversity. These systems also help connect broken-up habitats, making it easier for animals to move around. However, most studies focus on birds, and more research is needed to understand how agroforestry affects other types of plants and animals in urban areas.

Introducing food-producing plants into city landscapes helps people grow their own food, making communities more self-reliant. The United Nations notes that the ability of urban agroforestry to produce food is often overlooked. These systems also provide green spaces that improve mental health, reduce stress, and support community well-being. They also offer learning opportunities about nature, farming, and ecosystems.

Implementing urban agroforestry has challenges specific to cities. These include costs for building and maintaining these systems, such as buying plants, preparing soil, and hiring workers for tasks like pruning and harvesting. It also requires water and electricity, which may involve permits or connection fees. These costs are high, and the benefits, such as improved air quality or biodiversity, may take three to ten years to appear, depending on the plants used.

Trees can also cause problems, like lifting pavement or blocking drains, which adds to costs. After planting, issues like vandalism or damage from pests can further complicate efforts. Urban areas also have physical challenges, such as higher temperatures and compacted, polluted soil, which can harm trees and raise concerns about food safety. Pollen from trees may also cause allergies.

Because land in cities is valuable, using it for agroforestry can be difficult due to competition with other uses, such as housing or businesses.

Urban food forests are a type of urban agroforestry that copy natural forests. They combine trees with food production and can be built in cities or on rooftops. For example, Singapore uses rooftop gardens for this practice. One example is the "1 Arden" building in Singapore, which has a food forest with over 150 types of plants, fruits, and vegetables.

Community orchards are another example of urban agroforestry. These are areas where fruit or nut trees are planted and cared for by local groups. The "Orchard Project" in the UK helps communities plant and maintain fruit trees, providing food while teaching skills and creating greener neighborhoods.

A city farm becomes a form of urban agroforestry when it includes trees and long-term crops with other farming activities. This creates a system that produces food while also helping the environment and community. The "Stonebridge City Farm" in Nottingham was started by residents and now grows food while offering a space for people to learn, volunteer, and connect.

Forest gardening

Forest gardening is a low-maintenance, sustainable method of growing food using plants. It is based on woodland ecosystems and includes fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines, and perennial vegetables that provide useful food for humans. These plants are grown together in layers to create a habitat similar to a forest. This method has been used for thousands of years in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart created the term "forest gardening" after adapting similar ideas for temperate climates.

Before modern times, people like hunter-gatherers may have influenced forests by planting certain plants, such as hazel, in Europe. Forest gardens are likely the oldest form of land use and one of the most resilient systems for growing food. In Alaska, First Nation villages had forest gardens with nuts, fruits, berries, and herbs, as noted by an archeologist in the 1930s.

Today, forest gardens are still common in tropical regions. They are called Kandyan forest gardens in Sri Lanka, huertos familiares in Mexico, and agroforests in other places. These gardens help provide food and income for local communities.

Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the UK’s temperate climate in the 1980s. He started farming at Wenlock Edge in Shropshire to create a healthy environment for himself and his brother. At first, he used traditional farming methods, but he found it difficult to manage large vegetable beds, livestock, and orchards. He noticed that a small bed of perennial vegetables and herbs required little care.

After adopting a raw vegan diet, Hart replaced animals with plants. The main products from a forest garden are fruit, nuts, and leafy vegetables. He created a model garden from a 0.12-acre orchard and originally called his method ecological horticulture. Later, he changed the name because similar systems were already known as agroforestry and forest gardens. Hart was inspired by methods used in Kerala, India, where some gardens have many plants, such as coconut palms, bananas, and pineapples, along with crops for livestock.

The Agroforestry Research Trust, led by Martin Crawford, tests forest gardening in Devon, UK. Crawford describes forest gardens as a way to grow food and household items with little effort.

Ken Fern believed that temperate forest gardens needed more edible plants that can grow in shade. He created the Plants for a Future organization to collect information about suitable plants. He used the term "woodland gardening" instead of "forest gardening" in his book.

Kathleen Jannaway, who co-founded the Movement for Compassionate Living, wrote a book about a sustainable vegan future in 1991. Her group supports forest gardening and other vegan farming methods. In 2009, they gave a grant to the Bangor Forest Garden project in Wales.

Bill Mollison, who created the term "permaculture," visited Hart’s garden in 1990. Permaculture experts like Graham Bell, Patrick Whitefield, Dave Jacke, Eric Toensmeier, and Geoff Lawton support forest gardening. Bell wrote a book about permaculture in 1995, Whitefield wrote a guide to making forest gardens in 2002, and Jacke and Toensmeier co-authored a two-volume book on edible forest gardens in 2005.

Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in tropical areas. They grow trees, crops, and livestock on the same land. In Kerala, India, and northeastern India, home gardens are the most common way to use land. One example includes coconut, black pepper, cocoa, and pineapple. These gardens show polyculture, which means growing many plants together. They help preserve diverse plant species not found in monocultures. Some people compare forest gardens to the Garden of Eden.

The Amazon rainforest has been shaped by humans for at least 11,000 years through practices like forest gardening and terra preta. Since the 1970s, geoglyphs found in the Amazon have shown evidence of ancient civilizations.

On the Yucatán Peninsula, the Maya grew food in "orchard gardens" called pet kot. These gardens are surrounded by walls of stones.

William Cronon, an environmental historian, wrote that Indigenous North Americans used controlled burning to create habitats for wildlife. Early English settlers believed the forest’s food supply was natural, not created by Indigenous people. After settlers arrived, animal populations declined, and some plants like strawberries and raspberries disappeared due to lack of care.

In Belize and Guatemala, El Pilar features a forest garden to show traditional Maya farming. A model garden called Känan K'aax, meaning "well-tended garden," is funded by National Geographic and built at a school in Cayo.

In the United States, the Beacon Food Forest in Seattle is the largest known food forest on public land. Other projects include those in Colorado and Massachusetts. The Boston Food Forest Coalition supports local gardens.

In Canada, Richard Walker has created food forests in British Columbia for over 30 years. His three-acre garden provides food and materials for a nursery and herbal business. The Living Centre in Ontario has also developed forest garden projects.

In the UK, the Agroforestry Research Trust runs projects like Bangor Forest Garden in Wales. Martin Crawford from the trust manages the Forest Garden Network, which connects people and organizations growing forest gardens.

Forest farming

Forest farming is the growing of valuable plants, such as herbs or mushrooms, under the shade of trees. The trees are changed or kept in a way that helps the plants grow better and produce more. This practice includes planting new plants in areas under existing trees or changing tree areas to help plants grow better for sale.

Forest farming is a type of farming that mixes trees and crops. It is described by the "four I's": intentional (done on purpose), integrated (combined with other parts of the forest), intensive (carefully managed), and interactive (working together with the environment).

Non-timber forest products are items like plants, parts of plants, mushrooms, and other materials from forests. These can include ginseng, shiitake mushrooms, decorative ferns, and pine straw.

People have used forest farming for a long time to grow food and feed animals. In 1929, J. Russell Smith, a professor at Columbia University, wrote a book called Tree Crops – A Permanent Agriculture. He argued that trees could replace some grains in feeding animals and help protect the environment. Toyohiko Kagawa, inspired by Smith’s work, started growing plants under trees in Japan during the 1930s. He helped farmers plant trees to prevent soil erosion and improve farming. He grew walnut trees, used the nuts to feed pigs, sold the pigs for income, and later sold the mature trees for timber. This created a cycle that gave farmers both short-term and long-term income. Similar research began in other countries, but progress slowed during World War II. In the 1950s, research continued in places like southern Africa. Kagawa’s work also influenced Robert Hart, who started forest gardening in England in the 1960s.

In the past, animals were often part of forest farming. Today, animals are usually not included, and systems that mix trees, plants, and animals are called silvopastures. Forest farming combines the stability of natural forests with farming. It can help improve soil, restore water supplies, control floods and droughts, and use land that is hard to farm.

Forest farming methods may include removing too many trees to help others grow better. Workers may carefully thin trees to avoid harming the forest. They also manage the forest to keep a mix of healthy trees and shrubs of different ages and types. Activities should cause as little damage as possible to the surrounding area.