Conservation biology is the study of how to protect Earth's natural resources and the variety of life on the planet. Its goal is to save species, their homes, and ecosystems from too fast extinction rates and the loss of how living things interact. This field uses knowledge from both natural and social sciences, as well as practices in managing natural resources.

The conservation ethic is guided by the discoveries made in conservation biology.

Origins

The term conservation biology and its creation as a new field began with the meeting called "The First International Conference on Research in Conservation Biology." This conference took place in 1978 at the University of California, San Diego, in La Jolla, California. It was organized by American biologists Bruce A. Wilcox and Michael E. Soulé, along with other important researchers and conservationists such as Kurt Benirschke, Sir Otto Frankel, Thomas Lovejoy, and Jared Diamond. The meeting happened because of worry about tropical deforestation, species disappearing, and the loss of genetic diversity within species. The conference and its results aimed to connect ideas from ecology and evolutionary genetics with conservation policies and practical actions.

Conservation biology and the idea of biological diversity (biodiversity) developed together. This helped shape the modern time of conservation science and policy. Because conservation biology involves many different fields, it has led to new areas of study, such as conservation social science, conservation behavior, and conservation physiology. It also encouraged the growth of conservation genetics, a field first started by Otto Frankel, which is now often seen as a separate subdiscipline.

Description

The quick loss of natural systems worldwide has led scientists to call conservation biology a "Discipline with a deadline." This field is closely connected to ecology, as it studies how rare or endangered species live, including how they move, reproduce, and survive. Conservation biology focuses on understanding what causes biodiversity to decrease, how it can be recovered, and how to protect the variety of life at all levels—genes, species, and ecosystems. Scientists are worried because estimates suggest that up to half of all species on Earth may vanish in the next 50 years. This loss could worsen poverty and hunger and change the direction of life on the planet. Researchers admit it is hard to predict the future because many factors, such as new species entering different environments or changes in climate, are not fully understood.

Conservation biologists study and teach about the loss of biodiversity, the extinction of species, and how these changes harm human well-being. They work in the field, in offices, and for governments, universities, non-profit groups, and businesses. Their research covers many topics because conservation biology involves experts from both the natural and social sciences. Those who work in this field support actions to protect biodiversity based on science, ethics, and values. People and groups are responding to the crisis by creating plans that guide research, monitoring, and education programs at local, national, and global levels. More people now understand that conservation is not only about the results achieved but also about the methods used to reach those goals.

History

The conservation of natural resources is the most important problem to solve. If we do not solve this problem, solving other problems will not help much.

Efforts to protect the variety of life on Earth, called biodiversity, are a recent development. However, conserving natural resources has a long history that began before the modern conservation movement. People developed rules about using natural resources because they needed to live in balance with nature. These rules helped prevent individuals from taking too much, which could harm the community’s future. This situation is known as the "tragedy of the commons."

Conservation scientists can find examples of rules about shared resources in many cultures. For instance, the Alaskan Tlingit and Haida peoples of the Pacific Northwest had rules about fishing sockeye salmon. These rules were created by elders who understood the rivers and streams they managed. Many cultures throughout history have used rules, traditions, and organized practices to manage natural resources.

Around 250 BC, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka made laws to protect animals and birds. He also started veterinary clinics to care for sick animals.

Conservation ideas also appear in old religious and philosophical writings. Examples include traditions from Taoism, Shintoism, Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism. In Greek philosophy, Plato described how farmland had been damaged, saying it was like the "skeleton of a body." In the Bible, God told Moses to let the land rest every seventh year. Before the 18th century, many Europeans thought admiring nature was not important. However, as early as AD 680, St. Cuthbert created a wildlife sanctuary on the Farne Islands because of his religious beliefs.

In the 18th century, studying nature became very popular. People went on long expeditions and created public displays of natural history in Europe and North America. By 1900, there were many natural history museums in Germany, Britain, the United States, and France. Ideas about protecting nature became more common during the late 18th and early 20th centuries.

Before Charles Darwin sailed on the HMS Beagle, most people believed all species were created unchanged. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, was one of the first scientists to suggest that species change over time because of the environment. Erasmus Darwin also proposed that species evolve and noted that some animals have body parts that no longer seem useful but were helpful to their ancestors. These early ideas helped shape the thinking of scientists in the 19th century.

In the early 19th century, scientists like Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Lyell, and Charles Darwin helped develop the study of where living things are found. People became excited about collecting rare natural specimens, but many 18th and 19th-century scientists did not care about conservation and killed many animals for their collections.

Modern conservation biology began in the late 18th century during the Enlightenment in England and Scotland. Thinkers like Lord Monboddo talked about the importance of protecting nature, often inspired by Christian beliefs.

Scientific conservation methods were first used in British India. The idea of conserving nature included three main points: that humans harm the environment, that people have a duty to protect it for future generations, and that science should guide conservation efforts. Sir James Ranald Martin promoted these ideas, showing how deforestation damaged the land and pushing for forest conservation programs.

In 1842, the Madras Board of Revenue started a forest conservation program led by Alexander Gibson, a botanist who used scientific methods. This was the first time a government managed forests for conservation. In 1855, Governor-General Lord Dalhousie created the first large-scale forest conservation program in British India, which later influenced other countries, including the United States, where Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 as the world’s first national park.

The word "conservation" became widely used in the late 19th century. It referred to managing natural resources like trees, fish, soil, and minerals for economic reasons, as well as preserving forests, wildlife, and natural areas. During this time, the first conservation laws were passed, and the first nature conservation groups were formed. In 1869, Britain passed the Sea Birds Preservation Act, the first law to protect wildlife, after efforts by the Association for the Protection of Seabirds and Alfred Newton, an ornithologist. Newton also helped create laws to protect animals during breeding seasons.

One of the first conservation groups was the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, founded in 1889 in Manchester to stop the use of bird feathers in clothing. It later became the RSPB. The National Trust was formed in 1895 with the goal of preserving land for the benefit of the nation. In 1912, Charles Rothschild helped create the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, which later became the Wildlife Trusts.

In the United States, the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 allowed the president to set aside forest areas for protection. John Muir founded the Sierra Club in 1892, and the New York Zoological Society was created in 1895. Theodore Roosevelt established many national forests and preserves between 1901 and 1909. The 1916 National Parks Act helped protect natural areas in the United States.

Concepts and foundations

Scientists measure extinction rates in many ways. Conservation biologists use data from fossil records, the speed of habitat loss, and other factors like biodiversity loss and how species occupy areas to estimate these rates. The Theory of Island Biogeography is a major scientific tool that helps explain how species become extinct and how to measure these rates. The background extinction rate is about one species every few years. However, actual extinction rates are much higher. While this is important, scientists note that no models can fully account for unpredictable factors such as how species move, changes in climate, shifts in how species interact, and other random variables.

Measuring species loss is difficult because many species on Earth have not yet been identified or studied. Scientists estimate that between 3.6 million and 111.7 million species exist, but only 1.5 to 8 million have been given scientific names. Less than 1% of all described species have been studied in detail. According to the IUCN, 23% of vertebrates, 5% of invertebrates, and 70% of plants that have been evaluated are at risk of extinction. The Plant List is helping improve understanding of how many species exist.

Systematic conservation planning helps scientists choose the best ways to protect biodiversity and work with communities to support ecosystems. Margules and Pressey describe six steps in this process:

• Gather information about the region’s biodiversity.
• Set conservation goals for the area.
• Review existing protected areas.
• Choose new areas to protect.
• Take action to conserve these areas.
• Ensure the protected areas remain valuable over time.

Conservation biologists create detailed plans for grants or to guide their work. They often use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to help make decisions. The SLOSS debate is a topic often discussed in planning.

Conservation physiology, as defined by Steven J. Cooke and others, is a field that helps scientists understand how factors lead to population declines.

The Society for Conservation Biology is a global group of professionals who study and protect biodiversity. Conservation biology includes ideas from other fields like philosophy, law, economics, and education. Within biology, areas like conservation genetics and evolution are important for conservation work.

Conservationists may introduce bias when using descriptions like "habitat degradation" or "healthy ecosystems" to support policies. Conservation biologists use science, logic, and values to manage natural resources fairly. This approach is similar to how doctors recommend healthy habits to improve human health.

Some scientists believe a new leadership style is needed to make conservation biology more effective. This leadership focuses on communication, teamwork, and fairness, rather than power or control. Programs like the Aldo Leopold Leadership Program are helping train conservationists in these skills.

Conservation can happen in two ways: in-situ conservation, which protects species in their natural habitats, or ex-situ conservation, which protects them outside their natural homes, such as in gene banks or reserves.

Protecting natural habitats like forests, water, and soil is vital for species to survive. Creating new environments that look like the original is less effective than preserving the original habitats. In Nepal, a reforestation campaign has helped restore old forests by planting new trees in areas where forests were lost. Research shows that old forests store more carbon than young ones, so protecting them is important.

In the Gurukula Botanical Sanctuary in India, workers use gentle methods to restore degraded land, such as former tea and coffee plantations, to their original rainforest state. They also grow rare plants in the Western Ghats.

Preservationists believe in protecting nature without human interference. Conservationists differ from preservationists by working with society to find solutions that benefit both people and ecosystems. Some preservationists focus on biodiversity in a world without humans.

Ecological monitoring is the regular collection of data about species or habitats using clear methods. Long-term monitoring is important for conservation efforts, but data for many species and habitats is missing. Without historical data, scientists must make assumptions about whether their work helps ecosystems. Ecological monitoring can also warn about harmful effects from human activities or natural events.

Context and trends

Conservation biologists study patterns and events from Earth's ancient past to today's ecosystems to understand why species become extinct. Scientists agree that Earth has experienced five major mass extinctions in its history. These include the Ordovician (440 million years ago), Devonian (370 million years ago), Permian–Triassic (252 million years ago), Triassic–Jurassic (201 million years ago), and Cretaceous–Paleogene (66 million years ago) events. In the last 10,000 years, human activities have greatly changed Earth's ecosystems, making it difficult to estimate how many species have been lost. Activities like cutting down forests, destroying coral reefs, and draining wetlands are happening faster than scientists can track species loss. A recent report by the World Wide Fund for Nature says humans now use more natural resources than Earth can replace, requiring 1.6 Earths to meet current demands.

Conservation biologists have found evidence worldwide showing that humans may be causing the sixth and fastest mass extinction. This event, called the Holocene extinction, involves many species disappearing quickly. The global extinction rate is about 1,000 times higher than the natural rate. Scientists estimate that two-thirds of all mammal groups and half of all large mammal species (weighing at least 44 kilograms) have gone extinct in the last 50,000 years. Amphibians are declining faster than any other vertebrate group, with over 32% of surviving species at risk of extinction. In 43% of these threatened species, populations are continuing to drop. Since the 1980s, extinction rates have been 211 times higher than those seen in the fossil record. Some studies suggest the current extinction rate for amphibians may be 25,039 to 45,474 times the natural rate. This trend affects all major vertebrate groups. For example, 23% of all mammals and 12% of all birds are listed as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Even though extinction is natural, the current rate is so fast that evolution cannot keep up, leading to the largest mass extinction in Earth's history. Human activities, such as using too many resources and polluting, harm other species' habitats. Scientists are working to protect species like the Hawaiian Crow and the Whooping Crane of Texas. People can help by supporting policies that improve climate and protect natural resources.

Coral reefs are declining rapidly worldwide. By 2000, 27% of the world's coral reef ecosystems had collapsed. A major decline happened in 1998 when 16% of all coral reefs disappeared in less than a year due to coral bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs when ocean temperatures and acidity rise, causing corals to lose their symbiotic algae and die. The loss of coral reefs threatens global biodiversity, harms economies, and endangers food supplies for millions of people. Conservation biology helps shape international agreements to protect oceans and biodiversity.

Ocean acidification, caused by rising carbon dioxide levels, is a serious threat to marine life. Many marine species may not adapt to these changes. Scientists predict that 90% of large open-ocean fish like tuna, billfish, and sharks may disappear. If current trends continue, marine ecosystems may be left with only microbes.

Conservation efforts also focus on less visible groups like fungi, invertebrates, and plants, which make up most of Earth's biodiversity. Fungi are vital for forest health as decomposers and symbionts. Insects are crucial for ecosystems because they support plant life and pollinate crops. However, society often dislikes insects despite their importance.

Honeybees, which help pollinate many crops, have been disappearing in large numbers due to colony collapse disorder (CCD). In 2006–2007, 29% of U.S. beekeepers reported losing up to 76% of their colonies. Scientists are studying causes like pests, pesticides, and climate change.

Another example is the mountain pine beetle epidemic in British Columbia, Canada, which has damaged 470,000 square kilometers of forests since 1999. The government has created a plan to address this issue.

Many parasite species are also at risk of extinction. Parasites play important roles in ecosystems, but they are often overlooked. Threats include habitat loss and the extinction of host species.

In conclusion, human actions are causing rapid species loss, and major changes are needed to prevent further harm to Earth's ecosystems.