A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of vehicle that combines a traditional gasoline engine with one or more electric engines to move the car. The electric system, which uses energy more efficiently, helps the car use less fuel or provide better acceleration than a regular gasoline-powered vehicle. There are many types of HEVs, and some work more like electric vehicles (EVs) than others. The most common HEVs are passenger cars, but HEVs can also be found in trucks, buses, boats, and planes.

Modern HEVs use technologies like motor-generator units and regenerative braking to capture energy from the car’s movement. This energy is turned into electricity by an alternator and stored in a battery or a special storage device called a supercapacitor. Some HEVs use the gasoline engine to power an electrical generator, which either charges the car’s batteries or directly powers the electric motors. This setup is called a range extender. Many HEVs reduce pollution by turning off the gasoline engine when the car is stopped, such as at a traffic light, and restarting it when needed. This is called a start-stop system. Hybrid-electric systems usually produce fewer tailpipe emissions than similar-sized gasoline-only vehicles because the gasoline engine in HEVs is smaller and uses less fuel. If the gasoline engine does not directly move the car, it can operate at its most efficient speed, improving fuel use further.

Ferdinand Porsche created the Lohner–Porsche in 1901. However, HEVs became widely available only after the Toyota Prius was introduced in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999. At first, hybrids were not needed because gasoline was cheap. As gasoline prices rose worldwide, many car companies began selling hybrids in the late 2000s. Today, hybrids are seen as an important part of the future car market.

As of April 2020, more than 17 million HEVs had been sold worldwide since 1997. Japan has the largest number of HEVs, with 7.5 million registered by March 2018. Japan also has the highest percentage of HEVs among all passenger cars, with 19.0% of cars on the road being hybrids as of March 2018. The U.S. ranked second in HEV sales, with 5.8 million units sold since 1999 by December 2020. Europe was third, with 3.0 million HEVs sold since 2000 by July 2020.

Toyota Motor Corporation leads global HEV sales, with more than 15 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold by January 2020. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. sold over 1.35 million hybrids worldwide by June 2014. As of September 2022, the Toyota Prius liftback was the top-selling HEV model, with 5 million units sold. The Prius nameplate had sold more than 6 million hybrids by January 2017. Lexus hybrids reached 1 million sales in March 2016. By January 2017, the traditional Prius was the best-selling hybrid car in both Japan and the U.S., with over 1.8 million sold in Japan and 1.75 million in the U.S.

Classification

Hybrid electric vehicles are grouped based on how power is sent to the wheels:

• Parallel hybrids have both the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor connected to the transmission. They can both send power to the wheels at the same time, often using a standard transmission. Examples include Honda's Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) system in the Insight, Civic, and Accord, as well as GM's Belted Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system in the Chevrolet Malibu. In many parallel hybrids, the ICE can also act as a generator to charge the battery. Before 2015, most parallel hybrids used a large ICE with a small electric motor and battery. After 2015, some models had larger electric motors (over 50 kW), allowing electric driving at moderate speeds. Parallel hybrids are more efficient than non-hybrid vehicles, especially in city traffic where the electric motor helps, and on highways.

• Series hybrids use only the electric motor to drive the wheels. A smaller ICE (called a range extender) acts as a generator to power the motor or recharge the battery. These hybrids usually have larger battery packs than parallel hybrids, making them more expensive. When the battery is low, the ICE runs at its most efficient settings, improving efficiency during long city trips.

• Power-split hybrids combine features of both series and parallel hybrids. They are more efficient overall because they use the strengths of each system: series hybrids work best at low speeds, and parallel hybrids work best at high speeds. However, power-split hybrids cost more than pure parallel hybrids. Examples include 2007 models from Ford, General Motors, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota.

In all these hybrids, regenerative braking is used to recharge the batteries.

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) has a rechargeable battery that can be fully charged by plugging into an external power source. PHEVs have both an electric motor and an ICE, like regular hybrids, and also have a plug to connect to the electrical grid, like all-electric vehicles. PHEVs have a longer all-electric range than regular hybrids and avoid "range anxiety" because the ICE acts as a backup when the battery runs out.

In December 2018, Toyota do Brasil announced the development of the first commercial hybrid car with a flex-fuel engine that can run on electricity, ethanol, or gasoline. The technology was created with Brazilian universities, and a prototype was tested using a Toyota Prius. Toyota planned to start producing this flex-fuel hybrid in Brazil by the second half of 2019.

In September 2019, the twelfth generation of the Corolla line was launched in Brazil, including an Altis model with a flex-fuel hybrid engine powered by a 1.8-liter Atkinson engine. By February 2020, about 25% of all Corolla sales in Brazil were the Corolla Altis flex-fuel hybrid.

To reduce emissions, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) need energy management systems (EMSs) to control how power flows between the engine and battery.

In non-hybrid vehicles, the driver controls power delivery using the brake and accelerator pedals, and in manual cars, the driver chooses gears. In hybrids, an energy management controller is used because the vehicle can recover energy during braking or downhill driving. This recovered energy is stored in the battery and used later to help the engine provide power. The EMS decides how much power comes from each energy source. The goal of the EMS is to split power optimally between the engine and battery. This decision depends on the situation, such as minimizing fuel use, reducing emissions, or balancing battery life and other goals.

History

William H. Patton applied for a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889 and for a similar hybrid boat system in mid-1889. He later tested and sold the Patton Motor Car, a gas-electric hybrid system used to power tram cars and small trains. A petrol engine powered a generator that charged a lead-acid battery alongside the traction motors. A standard series-parallel controller was used for the traction motors. A prototype was built in 1889, an experimental tram car was tested in Pullman, Illinois, in 1891, and a production locomotive was sold to a street railway company in Cedar Falls, Iowa, in 1897.

In 1896, the Armstrong Phaeton was developed by Harry E. Dey and built by the Armstrong Company of Bridgeport, CT, for the Roger Mechanical Carriage Company. While steam, electric, and internal combustion vehicles existed at the time, the Armstrong Phaeton had several firsts. It used a petrol-powered 6.5-litre, two-cylinder engine and a dynamo flywheel connected to an onboard battery. The dynamo and regenerative braking system recharged the battery. Its electric starter was used 16 years before Cadillac’s. The dynamo also powered the ignition and electric lights. The car had the first semi-automatic transmission (no manual clutch). The exhaust system was part of the vehicle’s structure. However, the motor’s power caused repeated damage to the wheels.

In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche, while working at Lohner Coach Factory, created the Mixte, a 4WD series-hybrid version of the "System Lohner–Porsche" electric carriage, which had been shown at the 1900 Paris World Fair. In 1901, George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England, and in 1902, Knight Neftal made a racing hybrid.

In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an electric motor/generator, batteries, and a small petrol engine. The electric motor recharged the batteries at cruising speed, and both motors helped the car accelerate or climb hills. After Pieper’s death, the Pieper factory was taken over by Impéria. The 1915 Dual Power car, made by Woods Motor Vehicle, had a four-cylinder petrol engine and an electric motor. Below 15 mph, the electric motor powered the car, using battery energy. Above 15 mph, the petrol engine activated, allowing the car to reach 35 mph. About 600 units were made until 1918, but the Woods hybrid was not successful due to its slow speed and difficulty in maintenance. In 1927, a prototype petrol-electric car was made in England, but it was not a success. It is now displayed in the Thinktank museum in Birmingham. In 1928, the U.S. Army tested a petrol-electric bus in a military convoy.

In 1931, Erich Gaichen invented and drove a 1/2 horsepower electric car from Altenburg to Berlin. The car had a maximum speed of 25 mph and was licensed, taxed, and patented in Germany. The battery recharged using the motor when going downhill and by a compressed air cylinder recharged by air pumps and oxyhydrogen gas. No production beyond the prototype was reported.

During World War II, Ferdinand Porsche used his firm’s hybrid drivetrain experience to design armoured vehicles for Nazi Germany. Examples included the VK 3001 (P), the VK 4501 (P) (later the Elefant tank destroyer), and the Panzerkampfwagen Maus, the heaviest armoured vehicle ever made. These designs were limited by shortages of electrical-grade copper needed for the electric systems.

In 1967, the regenerative braking system, a key feature in modern hybrid cars, was developed for the American Motors Amitron. This all-electric car recharged its battery through braking, increasing its range. The AMC Amitron was the first U.S. use of regenerative braking technology.

In the 1960s and 1970s, Victor Wouk and Dr. Charles L. Rosen built a hybrid drivetrain prototype for a 1972 Buick Skylark as part of a government clean car program. The program was halted in 1976 due to controversy.

In 1979, Fiat introduced the Fiat 131 Ibrido, a prototype hybrid car with a 903cc petrol engine and a 20 kW electric motor. The system used a "parallel hybrid" design, connecting the engine directly to the differential and the electric motor to the transmission.

In the early 1980s, David Arthurs, an electrical engineer, developed a regenerative braking system using off-the-shelf parts and an Opel GT. His design achieved 75 miles per US gallon and was featured in Mother Earth News.

In 1982, Fritz Karl Preikschat patented an electric propulsion and braking system based on regenerative braking. This patent influenced over 120 later patents but was never tested or sold.

In 1988, Alfa Romeo built three prototypes of the Alfa 33 Hybrid, combining a 1,500cc petrol engine with a 16 HP electric motor. The design was lightweight and production-ready, allowing the car to travel 60 km/h in electric mode.

In 1989, Audi created the Audi Duo, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. The car used a 9.4 kW electric motor to power the rear wheels and a nickel–cadmium battery in the trunk. The front wheels were powered by a 2.3-litre five-cylinder petrol engine.

Sales and rankings

As of April 2020, more than 17 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their start in 1997. Japan is the leading market, with over 7.5 million hybrids sold by March 2018. The United States sold 5.4 million hybrids by 2019, and Europe sold 3.0 million hybrids by July 2020. Other countries sold over 500,000 hybrids by April 2016. In Canada, over 130,000 hybrids were sold by August 2014, with more than 100,000 being Toyota and Lexus models. In Australia, over 50,000 Lexus and Toyota hybrids were sold by February 2014.

As of January 2020, Toyota Motor Company (TMC) sold over 15 million hybrids globally, including Lexus and Toyota models. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. sold more than 1.35 million hybrids by June 2014. Ford Motor Corporation sold over 424,000 hybrids in the United States by June 2015, with about 10% being plug-in hybrids. Hyundai Group sold 200,000 hybrids worldwide by March 2014, including models from Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors. PSA Peugeot Citroën sold over 50,000 diesel-powered hybrids in Europe by December 2013.

Toyota had record sales in 2013, selling 1,279,400 hybrids worldwide. It took nine months to reach one million sales. In 2014, Toyota again sold one million hybrids in nine months. Toyota and Lexus hybrids reached 1 million units in May 2007, and the United States reached 1 million sales of both brands by February 2009. Worldwide, TMC hybrids totaled over 2 million vehicles by August 2009, 3 million by February 2011, 5 million by March 2013, 7 million by September 2014, 8 million by July 2015, 9 million by April 2016, 10 million by January 2017, and 15 million by January 2020.

Ford had record sales in the United States in 2013, selling nearly 80,000 hybrids, which was almost three times the 2012 total. In the second quarter of 2013, Ford’s hybrid sales were its best ever, increasing 517% compared to the same quarter in 2012. In 2013, Toyota’s hybrid market share in the United States dropped due to new competition, especially from Ford’s new models like the C-Max Hybrid and the redesigned Fusion. Sales of most Prius models and the Camry Hybrid declined, but the Fusion Hybrid sales increased by 164.3%, and the C-Max Hybrid sales rose by 156.6%. Ford’s market share in the U.S. hybrid market grew from 7.5% in 2012 to 14.7% in 2013.

As of January 2017, the Prius family led global hybrid sales, with 6.0361 million units sold (excluding plug-in hybrids), making up 60% of the 10 million hybrids sold worldwide by Toyota and Lexus since 1997. The Toyota Prius liftback was the top-selling Toyota model, with 3.985 million units sold. The Toyota Aqua/Prius c ranked second with 1.380 million units sold, followed by the Prius v/α/+ with 671,200 units, the Camry Hybrid with 614,700 units, the Toyota Auris with 378,000 units, and the Toyota Yaris Hybrid with 302,700 units. In the United States, the Toyota Prius reached 1 million sales in April 2011, and in Japan, it reached 1 million sales in August 2011. By January 2017, the Prius liftback sold over 1.8 million units in Japan and 1.75 million in the United States, making it the best-selling hybrid in both countries.

Lexus sold 500,000 hybrid vehicles worldwide by November 2012 and reached 1 million sales by March 2016. The Lexus RX 400h/RX 450h was the top-selling Lexus hybrid, with 363,000 units sold by January 2017, followed by the Lexus CT 200h with 290,800 units and the Lexus ES 300h with 143,200 units.

Japan has the largest hybrid electric vehicle fleet globally, with 7.51 million hybrids registered by March 2018, excluding kei cars. By 2016, Japan accounted for about 45% of all hybrid sales worldwide since 1997. In 2014, Japan sold over 1 million hybrids for the first time, surpassing the United States as the largest hybrid market. By December 2014, Japan sold over 4 million hybrids. This was the first time all eight major Japanese manufacturers offered hybrid vehicles.

Japan has the highest hybrid market penetration globally, with hybrids making up 19.0% of all passenger cars on the road by March 2018. Hybrid sales grew significantly in 2009 after the government introduced incentives for fuel-efficient vehicles and launched the third generation Prius. In 2009, hybrid sales reached over 10% of new car sales in Japan, compared to less than 5% in 2008. By 2013, hybrids made up over 30% of new car sales in Japan. In 2009, Japan sold 334,000 new hybrids, while the United States sold 2.8% of its new vehicles as hybrids. Japan’s hybrid sales made up 48% of global sales in 2009, compared to 42% for the United States. The Toyota Prius was the first hybrid to top annual new car sales in Japan, with 208,876 units sold in 2009. The Honda Insight also sold over 100,000 units in Japan in its first year after being introduced in 2010.

Technology

Hybrid electric vehicles can be different based on how their drivetrain works, the type of fuel they use, and how they operate. In 2007, some car companies said future vehicles might use parts of hybrid technology to save fuel without needing a hybrid drivetrain. Regenerative braking can help save energy by capturing power when brakes are used, which can then power electrical parts like air conditioning. Turning off the engine when the car is not moving can also save fuel and reduce pollution without adding a hybrid drivetrain. In these cases, some benefits of hybrid technology are used, but extra costs and weight may only come from larger batteries and starter motors. These vehicles are sometimes called "mild hybrids," though there is no official name for them.

Most hybrid electric vehicles use petrol engines, and this is likely to stay true for the near future. While petrol is the main fuel, some ethanol made from plants can be mixed in. Like many modern cars, hybrid electric vehicles can usually use up to 15% bioethanol. Some companies may use engines that can run on different fuels, but no plans for this are currently in place.

A full hybrid diesel system example is the HYbrid4 by PSA Peugeot-Citroën. This system was stopped in 2016 after interest in diesel cars dropped following the VW Dieselgate scandal. Diesel-electric hybrid vehicles use a diesel engine to generate power. Diesel engines work well for long periods of steady power, causing less wear and running more efficiently. The strong torque of diesel engines, combined with hybrid technology, could improve fuel efficiency. Most diesel vehicles can use 100% biodiesel, meaning they do not need petrol at all (though mixes of biofuel and petrol are more common). If diesel-electric hybrids were widely used, this benefit would apply. Diesel-electric hybrid systems are now used in buses, but as of 2007, no small passenger cars using this system were widely available, though prototypes existed. Peugeot planned to make a diesel-electric hybrid version of its 308 in late 2008 for Europe.

PSA Peugeot Citroën showed two test vehicles with diesel-electric hybrid systems: the Peugeot 307, Citroën C4 Hybride HDi, and Citroën C-Cactus. Volkswagen made a test diesel-electric car that used only 2 liters of fuel per 100 kilometers (about 140 miles per gallon in the UK or 120 miles per gallon in the US), but no hybrids were sold. General Motors tested the Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid. No exact dates for these vehicles were given, but companies said production models might appear by 2009.

At the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009, Mercedes and BMW showed diesel-electric hybrid cars. Robert Bosch GmbH provided hybrid diesel-electric technology to several car companies, including for the Peugeot 308.

So far, most diesel-electric engines used in production have been in buses. FedEx, along with Eaton Corp. in the US and Iveco in Europe, started using a small number of hybrid diesel-electric delivery trucks. By October 2007, FedEx had more than 100 hybrid diesel-electric trucks in North America, Asia, and Europe.

Some bicycles have an electric motor powered by a generator that is turned by pedals. These are similar to regular bicycles but use a battery to store extra power. This battery can be charged through regenerative braking, from plug-in chargers, or from the pedal-powered generator. These bikes are likely considered hybrids because the motor gets power from two sources: the pedals and the battery.

In 2009, Hyundai made the Elantra LPI Hybrid, the first mass-produced hybrid electric vehicle that runs on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: as fuel to create heat or as a source of electricity for an electric motor. Burning hydrogen is not being developed, but hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles (HFEVs) are getting more attention. In HFEVs, hydrogen and oxygen combine to create electricity, which powers the motor. This process creates water as a byproduct. The hydrogen is not burned but used to produce electricity. This electricity is then used to power the car’s motor.

An HFEV is an all-electric car that uses a hydrogen tank and the air (oxygen) to create electricity. Some HFEVs also use batteries to store energy from regenerative braking, but the main power source remains hydrogen. Since HFEVs do not use any heat engine, they are not hybrids.

Some vehicles combine solar panels with an electric battery. The solar panels charge the battery, and the car can also be charged from the power grid like a plug-in hybrid. These vehicles are technically hybrids because they use two different energy sources: solar power and battery power. The advantage is that the car can still move if there is no sunlight, and the battery is charged continuously by the solar panels.

Hybrid vehicles can use internal combustion engines that run on biofuels, like ethanol or biodiesel. In 2007, Ford made 20 test Escape Hybrid E85 cars for testing in the US. In 2008, Ford gave the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the US Department of Energy, a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid that could run on petrol or E85.

The Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid electric vehicle would be the first commercially available car that can use different biofuels, such as E85 in the US, E100 in Brazil, or biodiesel in Sweden. The Volt would be able to use E85 about a year after it was introduced.

Sometimes, car companies make hybrid electric vehicles that use the extra energy from the hybrid system to increase power rather than improve fuel efficiency. The balance between better performance and fuel savings is controlled by the car’s software and the size of the engine, battery, and motor. In the future, car companies might let drivers choose how much power or fuel efficiency they want.

Environmental impact

Electric hybrids use less petroleum than similar traditional vehicles in some situations. They do this through three main methods:

• Turning off the internal combustion engine (ICE) when the vehicle is not moving or needs little power.
• Using energy that would otherwise be lost during braking to recharge the battery (called regenerative braking).
• Making the ICE smaller and more efficient by using the electric motor to help with power when needed.

These methods can be combined in different ways to affect fuel use, power, emissions, weight, and cost. In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), the ICE can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than in traditional vehicles because it is designed for average power needs rather than peak power needs. Traditional vehicles are less efficient because their ICEs operate best in a narrow range of speeds and power, while HEVs often keep the ICE working closer to its most efficient range. Electric motors are better at handling varying speeds and can produce more torque at low speeds than ICEs. Better fuel economy in HEVs helps reduce global petroleum use and vehicle pollution.

Many hybrids use the Atkinson cycle, which improves engine efficiency but reduces power for the engine’s size.

Hybrids are quieter than traditional vehicles because they use the electric motor more at low speeds and when stopped. This reduces noise pollution on roads, but it can create safety risks for pedestrians, especially those who are blind or visually impaired, who rely on engine noise to detect vehicles. Studies show that hybrids operating in electric mode are hard to hear below 20 mph (32 km/h).

A 2009 study by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) found that hybrids have higher crash rates involving pedestrians and bicyclists during certain maneuvers, often in low-speed areas, during the day, and in clear weather.

In 2010, Japan’s government created guidelines for hybrid and near-silent vehicles. The U.S. passed the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act in 2010, and it became law in 2011. In 2013, NHTSA proposed rules requiring hybrids and electric vehicles to emit warning sounds when traveling below 18.6 mph (30 km/h) to help pedestrians hear them. These rules began in 2014. In 2014, the European Parliament required all new electric and hybrid vehicles to use Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) by 2019.

By mid-2010, some carmakers added sounds to hybrids and electric vehicles to improve safety. Examples include the Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Fuga hybrid, and Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid. Toyota introduced a system called Vehicle Proximity Notification System (VPNS) in 2012 Prius models.

In California, aftermarket technology is available to make hybrids sound like traditional vehicles in electric mode. In 2010, Toyota sold a device in Japan that automatically emits a sound when the Prius is in electric mode at speeds up to 25 km/h (16 mph). Toyota plans to expand this technology to other vehicle types.

The following table shows fuel economy ratings and pollution data for the top ten most fuel-efficient hybrids in the U.S. as of June 2016, for model years 2015 and 2016.

Vehicle types

Companies like Zero Motorcycles and Vectrix offer all-electric motorcycles that are available for sale now. However, combining electric parts with traditional engines (called internal combustion engines or ICEs) makes it difficult to design these vehicles, especially for smaller companies.

eCycle Inc. makes a type of motorcycle called a diesel-electric motorcycle. It can go up to 80 mph (130 km/h) and costs about $5,500 to buy.

The Peugeot HYmotion3 is a hybrid scooter with three wheels. It uses two power sources: a small gasoline engine powers the back wheel, and two electric motors power the front wheels. When the scooter moves slower than 10 km/h, only the electric motors work, which helps reduce pollution.

In India, Yamaha sells a hybrid motorcycle called the Yamaha FZ-S.

As rules to reduce pollution become stricter, more high-performance cars will use hybrid technology. For example, the Porsche GT3 hybrid racing car uses this system. Hybrid systems help reduce pollution, and the power from electric motors can improve a car’s speed and performance by fixing weaknesses in traditional engines. Hybrid racecars have won major races, like the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with cars such as the Audi R18 and Porsche 919.

Since 2014, Formula One cars have used 1.6-liter turbocharged V6 engines that can reach up to 15,000 revolutions per minute. These engines help cars reach speeds of 372 km/h (231 mph), as shown by a driver named Valtteri Bottas in 2016.

In 2000, the first hybrid electric taxi in North America started operating in Vancouver, British Columbia. It used a Toyota Prius and traveled over 332,000 km (206,000 miles) before being retired. In 2015, a taxi driver in Austria claimed to have driven 1,000,000 km (620,000 miles) in a Toyota Prius with the original battery.

Many major cities now use hybrid taxis, including San Francisco and New York City. By 2009, 15% of New York’s 13,237 taxis were hybrids, the highest number in North America. Other cities with hybrid taxis include Tokyo, London, Sydney, Melbourne, and Rome.

Hybrid technology for buses has improved because new batteries are lighter. These buses use both diesel engines and gas turbines. Some designs use regular diesel engines already used in buses to save costs. By 2007, several companies were working on hybrid bus designs that fit into existing vehicle frames without major changes. However, cheaper buses from countries like China and Belarus may compete with hybrid buses. Hybrid buses use less fuel because of their hybrid systems. Transit authorities that care about the environment also support hybrid buses.

In 2003, General Motors introduced a hybrid diesel-electric military truck with a fuel cell power unit. In 2004, Mercedes-Benz and Micro-Vett SPA released hybrid electric trucks. International Truck and Engine Corp. and Eaton Corp. made hybrid trucks for a US pilot program in 2004. In 2005, Isuzu launched a hybrid truck in Japan called the Elf Diesel Hybrid Truck. Hino Motors, a Toyota company, made the world’s first hybrid electric truck in Australia in 2007.

Large mining machines, such as the Liebherr T 282B dump truck and the BelAZ 7530 and 7560 series from Belarus, use hybrid systems. NASA’s Crawler-Transporters are diesel-electric. Other hybrid trucks include the Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Eco Hybrid, the Azure Dynamics Balance Hybrid Electric, and the Hino Motors hybrid truck. Companies like DAF Trucks, MAN, Nissan, and Renault also make hybrid trucks.

Companies that design hybrid truck systems include ZF Friedrichshafen and EPower Engine Systems. In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a law to support research on heavy-duty hybrid vehicles.

About 70 years after Porsche tested hybrid systems in military vehicles during World War II, the US Army uses hybrid electric systems in its Future Combat System vehicles. However, these vehicles were stopped in 2010. Other military hybrid prototypes include the Millenworks Light Utility Vehicle, the International FTTS, the HEMTT A3, and the Shadow RST-V.

China’s Type 100 tank, introduced in 2025, is the first hybrid military vehicle in service.

In 2003, Japan’s JR East tested a train called the NE (new energy) train, which uses a hybrid system with lithium-ion batteries. In 2004, Railpower Technologies tested hybrid trains in the US, leading to orders from Union Pacific and Canadian Pacific Railways.

Companies like Railpower and GE make hybrid electric trains. Diesel-electric trains are not always considered hybrid vehicles unless they use electricity from a power source, like a track, for short distances. These are called dual-mode vehicles.

For large ships that already use diesel-electric systems, adding a battery and control systems can make them hybrid. This helps save fuel and reduce pollution.

Companies that make hybrid systems for boats include eCycle Inc. and Solar Sailor Holdings.

A hybrid electric aircraft uses both electric and traditional fuel systems. Because batteries have less energy than fuel, hybrid planes can fly farther than fully electric planes. By 2018, over 30 projects were testing hybrid planes, and some companies plan to build short-haul hybrid planes by 2032. Examples include the Zunum Aero 10-seater, the Airbus E-Fan X, the VoltAero Cassio, the UTC modified Bombardier Dash 8, and the Ampaire Electric EEL.

Hybrid premium and showroom cost parity

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) may cost more at first than traditional gasoline-powered cars because they have extra parts like batteries and more electronic systems. This higher initial cost is sometimes called the "hybrid premium." However, over time, HEVs can save money on fuel costs. The time it takes to save enough money to cover the higher initial cost depends on how much the vehicle is used, fuel prices, and sometimes government help. Traditional vehicles might cost less at first, but this does not consider other costs like pollution.

In April 2006, Consumer Reports published an article saying HEVs would not save money over five years. However, the article had a mistake, charging the hybrid premium twice. After fixing the error, it was found that the Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Prius could save money in slightly less than five years. This calculation included estimates of how much the vehicles lose value over time and expected fuel prices. At the time, gas prices ranged from about $2 to $3 per gallon, averaging around $2.60 per gallon.

In January 2007, Intellichoice.com reported that all 22 available HEVs would save money over five years. The Toyota Prius had the most savings, with a five-year cost of ownership 40.3% lower than similar non-hybrid cars.

A report in the Greeley Tribune stated that over five years, a hybrid Camry driver could save up to $6,700 in fuel costs at June 2007 gas prices. Hybrid tax incentives added to these savings.

In countries that offer incentives to reduce pollution and improve fuel efficiency, HEVs can save money immediately. In some cases, traditional gasoline vehicles may cost more than hybrids because they produce more pollution.

Toyota and Honda have reduced the extra cost of making HEVs and expect to reach cost equality with traditional vehicles in the future, even without government incentives.

Raw materials shortage

The rare-earth element dysprosium is needed to make many advanced electric motors and battery systems used in hybrid vehicles.

Most rare-earth elements in the world are found in China. In 2008, an analyst predicted that increased production of electronics in China could use up all available supplies of these elements by 2012. Also, limits on how much China can export have made the supply of these metals unreliable.

Some sources outside of China, such as the Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada and Mt Weld in Australia, are being developed. However, it is unclear whether these sources will be ready before a shortage occurs.

Legislation and incentives

To encourage the purchase of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), many countries have created laws that offer rewards and eco-friendly taxes. In Ontario and Quebec, Canada, people can receive a rebate of up to $2,000 on the Provincial Retail Sales Tax when buying or leasing a hybrid car. Ontario also provides a special green license plate for hybrid car owners and planned to introduce many benefits with it in 2008. In British Columbia, buyers of hybrid cars before April 1, 2011, could get a full reduction of sales tax up to $2,000. This tax break was extended in 2007/2008 and increased from $1,000 to $2,000 between 2008 and 2009. Prince Edward Island allows rebates of up to $3,000 on Provincial Sales Tax for hybrid car purchases since March 30, 2004.

In Haifa, Israel, hybrid vehicles are allowed to park for free in city parking lots for local residents. Other cities, like Petah-Tikva, also offer free parking for hybrid cars.

In 2009, Japan introduced policies to support hybrid vehicles, including a program to encourage people to replace old cars, tax breaks for hybrid and low-emission vehicles, and higher taxes on gasoline, which increased prices by about $4.50 per gallon. Hybrid car sales in 2009 nearly tripled compared to 2008.

In Jordan, hybrid vehicles receive a reduced customs and sales tax of 25% of the vehicle’s price if the car replaces an older vehicle (more than 10 years old). However, in 2018, the government raised the tax back to 55% to increase revenue.

In Malaysia, starting in mid-2014, the prices of fully imported hybrid and electric vehicles (EVs) increased because a tax incentive program ended on December 31, 2013. This affected models like the Toyota Prius, Honda Civic Hybrid, and Nissan Leaf. However, locally assembled hybrid cars, such as the Honda Jazz Hybrid and Toyota Camry Hybrid, still receive tax exemptions until 2015 and 2017, respectively.

In the Netherlands, owners of HEVs can receive a discount of up to €6,000 on the vehicle registration tax (VRT) when the car is first sold.

In Christchurch, New Zealand, hybrid vehicles can park for free for one hour in city parking buildings. If a building already offers one hour of free parking, hybrid vehicles get an additional hour.

In the Republic of Ireland, hybrid car owners could receive a discount of up to €1,500 on VRT until December 31, 2012. Before July 2008, VRT was based on engine size, but later changed to focus on carbon emissions. Concerns arose about lost tax revenue due to the import of expensive, large-engine hybrid SUVs, which may have reduced the environmental benefits of hybrid technology.

In Sweden, private car owners receive a cash payment of about $1,600 for purchasing an eco-friendly car. For company cars, the benefit tax is reduced by 40% for EVs and HEVs and 20% for other eco-friendly vehicles.

In the United Kingdom, HEVs pay the lowest vehicle excise duty (car tax) based on carbon emissions. In central London, these vehicles may get a discount on the daily congestion charge. The cleanest vehicles, including some hybrids, battery-electric, and fuel cell cars, qualify for discounts if they are on the Power Shift Register.

In the United States, the IRS allowed a federal tax credit of up to $3,400 for hybrid car purchases until December 31, 2010. This credit was reduced and eventually removed after manufacturers sold 60,000 hybrid cars. By 2010, Toyota, Honda, and Ford had reached this limit, and no Ford hybrids were eligible for the credit after April 2010.

In some U.S. states, like California, Florida, New York, and Virginia, hybrid cars can use high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes even if only one person is in the car. This was allowed after the Transportation Equity Act of 2005 was passed in 2005. In California, 85,250 hybrid car owners benefited from HOV lane access from 2004 to 2011. This benefit ended in 2011, and hybrids now must meet passenger requirements to use HOV lanes.

Some states, like California, exempt hybrid cars from biennial smog inspections, which cost over $50. In San Jose, California, hybrid car owners received free parking tags until 2007, after which they had to pay a fee. Los Angeles, California, offered free parking for HEVs starting in 2004. Baltimore, Maryland, gave discounts on monthly parking for hybrids, and Boston, Massachusetts, considered similar plans. In Washington, D.C., hybrid car owners pay half the vehicle registration fee ($36) compared to conventional cars ($72).

In California, a clean air bumper sticker once allowed HEVs to use HOV lanes. Some shopping malls in Northern Virginia have reserved parking spaces for hybrid and electric cars.