Eco-terrorism is an act of violence that supports environmental causes and targets people or property. It is a type of extreme environmental activism that developed from the same ideas that led to movements such as deep ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology, and bioregionalism.

Studies using large sets of data show that very few people have been killed because of eco-terrorism. In the United States, the radical environmental movement often used actions like setting fires, damaging property, and sabotaging systems before the mid-2000s. After that time, the movement mostly changed to using peaceful methods such as refusing to follow laws and organizing large public demonstrations.

History

The term "eco-terrorism" was first used in the 1960s. However, people have used violent methods to protect the environment before that time. One example is the War of the Demoiselles, or War of the Maidens. This event happened in France in the 1820s. In 1827, the French government created new rules about forests. Peasants, who relied on the land for their livelihood, felt these rules unfairly took land away from them. In May 1829, groups of men dressed as women attacked forest guards and workers who they believed had wrongfully taken the land. These revolts lasted until 1832.

This event is sometimes called an early form of eco-terrorism because the peasants used secretive and violent tactics. They targeted officials who they believed harmed the environment. However, this is considered a pre-history of eco-terrorism because the peasants were not environmentalists. They acted to protect the land because it was their main source of income and way of life.

Similar actions happened during the time of colonialism and imperialism. Native and indigenous people often had different views about land compared to Europeans. Europeans believed land was meant to be used for profit, while many indigenous groups saw it as something to be cared for. When Europeans took over foreign lands, they often claimed natives were not using the land properly. Native groups sometimes fought to protect their land, much like modern environmentalists who oppose companies that destroy forests. For example, when the French colonized Algeria, they took land from native people, claiming their nomadic lifestyle harmed the environment. Native groups resisted to keep their land and traditions.

In the United States, a radical environmental movement used actions like arson and sabotage to stop harmful projects. These actions mostly stopped by the mid-2000s, when the movement shifted to peaceful protests and civil disobedience.

Studies of large groups of data show that very few people have died as a result of eco-terrorism.

Eco-terrorism, civil disobedience, and sabotage

Eco-terrorism is sometimes described as using violence to support environmental causes. Groups that fit this description may cause emotional or physical harm to people if they think it will help their environmental goals. This extreme form of environmental action is against the law, unlike eco-activism, which is not illegal. Eco-activism uses peaceful methods like protests, sit-ins, and other civil actions to encourage environmental change. Eco-terrorism can also involve sabotage for environmental reasons, which is illegal because it harms property and may endanger people. In the United States, the FBI considers acts of violence against property as terrorism, which means many sabotage acts are classified as domestic terrorism.

Some radical environmentalists disagree with the FBI's definition of eco-terrorism, arguing it does not match other definitions, such as the one from the International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism. That definition says terrorism only includes actions intentionally aimed at civilians. These groups also criticize the way governments and media sometimes mix up eco-terrorism with ecotage, using the term "terrorism" to describe actions that do not meet the true definition of terrorism.

Sabotage means destroying or threatening to destroy property. In this context, sabotage is also called monkeywrenching or ecotage. Many sabotage acts involve damaging equipment or unmanned buildings using fire.

Philosophy

The idea of eco-terrorism comes from the radical environmentalism movement, which became popular in the 1960s. This movement believes that capitalism, societies led by men, and the industrial revolution and its later inventions caused harm to nature. Radical environmentalism also holds that human actions have damaged the environment, and if these actions are not stopped, the environment will be completely ruined. Craig Rosebraugh, who speaks for groups like the Animal Liberation Front and Earth Liberation Front, says that harmful or violent actions are sometimes necessary when efforts to protect the environment are ignored. He argues that destroying property owned by harmful corporations might be less bad than letting those corporations continue to harm the environment.

Many groups accused of eco-terrorism are influenced by the radical environmentalist idea called deep ecology. Deep ecologists believe that humans should find meaning by connecting with the natural world. They support strong actions to protect the environment and consider many conservation groups as not doing enough. A key idea in deep ecology is biocentrism, which means that humans are just one part of the natural world and that all living things should be protected by laws. Other eco-terrorists are driven by the goal of restoring the environment to its natural, or pre-industrial, state.

Examples of tactics

There are many different methods used by eco-terrorists and groups connected to eco-terrorism. These include:

• Tree spiking is a method first used by members of Earth First! in 1984. It involves placing small metal spikes inside tree trunks that may be cut down. These spikes can harm the tools used to cut trees or seriously injure loggers. Only one serious injury from this method has been widely reported.
• Arson is a tactic linked to the Earth Liberation Front (ELF). The ELF has been responsible for fires at places like housing developments, SUV dealerships, and chain stores.
• Bombing is rare but has been used by eco-terrorists. For example, the Superphénix construction site was attacked with anti-tank rockets (RPG-7) by environmental activists. The 1976 Bunbury bombing in Australia, also linked to environmental activists, is debated as an act of terrorism.
• Monkeywrenching is a method popularized by Edward Abbey in his book The Monkey Wrench Gang. It involves destroying equipment that harms the environment.

Notable individuals convicted of eco-terrorist crimes

• Tre Arrow
• Dave Foreman – arrested by the FBI for planning to damage a power line that supplied water to a pumping station
• James Lee
• Wiebo Ludwig – accused multiple times of damaging oil and gas wells in Alberta, Canada
• Ted Kaczynski
• Jeff Luers
• Marius Mason
• Daniel McGowan – convicted for taking part in a fire at a lumber company

Groups accused

Organizations accused of eco-terrorism are usually grassroots groups. They do not have a clear leader or structure, and they often use direct actions to achieve their goals. Stefan Leader describes groups like the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) as using "leaderless resistance." This means that no single person leads the group, and members work independently. Each small group, or cell, operates on its own, shares the same goals, and does not follow a central leader. People who want to join are often encouraged to start their own cell to keep their activities secret.

In the United States, groups accused of eco-terrorism include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Earth First!, The Coalition to Save the Preserves, and the Hardesty Avengers. In 2010, the FBI faced criticism from the U.S. Justice Department for monitoring about 2,000 members of animal rights and environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and PETA, without clear reasons. In 2002, an FBI official told Congress about the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society’s actions, which included direct attacks on whaling, seal hunting, and fishing operations. In 1986, Sea Shepherd caused nearly $1.8 million in damage to equipment used by Icelandic whalers. In 1992, the group damaged two Japanese fishing ships by cutting their nets and throwing stink bombs on board.

Earth First! was started in 1980, inspired by Edward Abbey. While the group has become more mainstream, its use of tree spiking has been linked to eco-terrorism. In 1990, Earth First! members Judi Bari and Darryl Cherney were hurt when a pipe bomb exploded under Bari’s car seat. Authorities said the bomb was accidentally set off. Bari and Cherney later sued investigators, claiming false arrests, illegal searches, and conspiracy. In 2002, a jury ruled that FBI agents and Oakland police violated the constitutional rights of Earth First! members.

The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) was founded in 1992 and joined with the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), which began in England in 1979. ELF and ALF are often linked to arson but claim they do not harm people or animals. In 2008, ELF set fire to luxury homes in Woodinville, a suburb of Seattle. A banner at the scene said the housing development was not as environmentally friendly as claimed. In 2009, ELF claimed responsibility for destroying two radio towers in Seattle. The FBI named ELF as "one of the most active extremist groups in the United States" and a "terrorist threat" in 2001. The Coalition to Save the Preserves was also linked to a series of arsons in Arizona, causing over $5 million in damage.

Media reports have connected Ted Kaczynski, known as the Unabomber, to environmental activists. His letter bombs caused 23 injuries and three deaths. Outlets like ABC, The New York Times, Time magazine, and USA Today have made this connection. Some local groups, such as Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty and the Hardesty Avengers, have also been charged under U.S. laws related to eco-terrorism. The Hardesty Avengers spiked trees in the Hardesty Mountains in 1984.

In 2008, the FBI stated that eco-terrorists were "one of the most serious domestic terrorism threats in the U.S. today." The FBI cited over 2,000 crimes since 1979, more than $110 million in economic losses, and attacks on a wide range of targets, including corporations, lumber companies, and research facilities. Eco-terrorism groups have also used increasingly violent language, such as a message sent to a California testing company that warned, "You might be able to protect your buildings, but can you protect the homes of every employee?"

It is unclear how much FBI informants or controversial entrapment tactics have influenced eco-terrorism. In 2015, Eric McDavid, a "green anarchist," was released from a 2007 conviction after evidence showed the FBI used entrapment to lure activists. This case was previously used by the FBI to support its claim that eco-terrorism was a major threat. The National Animal Interest Alliance has compiled a list of major animal rights and eco-related criminal acts since 1983.

US Government's response

In 1988, spiking trees became a federal crime in the United States when it was included in the Drug Act.

In 1992, the Animal Enterprise Protection Act made it a federal crime to cause more than $10,000 in damage by intentionally stealing, damaging, or causing the loss of property used by an animal enterprise. In 2006, this law was updated and renamed the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act. The new law added penalties for causing harm to people and for damaging "secondary targets" related to the crime.

In 2003, a group called the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) proposed a law called the "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act." This law defined an "animal rights or ecological terrorist organization" as two or more people working together to stop activities involving animals or natural resources. This law was not passed.

The FBI reported that from 2005 onward, investigations led to charges against 30 people. In 2006, an FBI operation called "Operation Backfire" charged 11 people linked to the groups ELF and ALF with crimes such as arson, conspiracy, and destroying an energy facility. This operation was connected to a 1998 fire at a ski resort in Vail, Colorado, caused by a group called "The Family." The fire caused $26 million in damage. The FBI worked with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives to prosecute those involved and prevent future eco-terrorism.

In 2010, the Bush Justice Department, including the FBI, faced criticism for investigating left-leaning activist groups like Greenpeace. The Washington Post reported that the FBI improperly investigated some U.S. activist groups and placed members of an environmental organization on a terrorist watch list, even though the group planned nonviolent protests.

A report by Inspector General Glenn A. Fine found that the FBI was not guilty of the most serious charge—that agents targeted groups based on their First Amendment rights. This investigation was started in response to claims that the FBI had unfairly targeted groups during the Bush administration.