Marine plastic pollution is a type of ocean pollution caused by plastic materials, which can be as large as bottles and bags or as small as microplastics. Microplastics and nanoplastics form when larger plastic items break down in the ocean, rivers, or surface waters. Most ocean debris comes from human waste that floats or is suspended in the ocean. About 80% of this waste is plastic. Scientists have found nanoplastics in heavy snow, with about 3,000 tons falling on Switzerland each year.

It is estimated that there are 86 million tons of plastic waste in the world’s oceans as of 2013. This number assumes that 1.4% of all plastic made globally between 1950 and 2013 has entered the ocean. In 2022, about 300 million tons of plastic were used worldwide each year, with around 8 million tons ending up in the ocean as large plastic items. About 1.5 million tons of microplastics are added to the seas each year. Most of this comes from land-based activities, with a small amount from ocean-related activities. It is estimated that 19–23 million tons of plastic enter aquatic environments each year. A 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference report suggested that by 2050, the weight of plastic in the ocean could exceed the weight of all fish.

Plastic waste in the ocean ranges in size from large items like bottles and bags to tiny microplastics. These materials break down very slowly, so they are now found throughout the ocean’s surface and harm marine life. Items like plastic bags, six-pack rings, and cigarette butts can trap or suffocate animals. Plastic fishing nets, called ghost nets, can entangle marine animals such as fish, dolphins, sea turtles, and sharks, causing injury, starvation, or suffocation. Bottle caps have been found in the stomachs of turtles and seabirds, leading to their deaths. Ghost nets continue to trap marine life in a process called "ghost fishing."

The 10 countries that release the most ocean plastic are China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh. These countries contribute about 90% of all plastic waste that reaches the world’s oceans, often through rivers like the Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Nile, and Ganges. Asia is the largest source of mismanaged plastic waste, with China alone responsible for 2.4 million metric tons. The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam together dump more plastic into the ocean than all other countries combined.

Plastics do not break down naturally like many other materials. They can break down when exposed to sunlight, but water slows this process. In the ocean, sunlight causes plastic to break into smaller pieces, even down to the molecular level. When plastic becomes as small as zooplankton, jellyfish may eat it, allowing plastic to enter the ocean food chain.

Solutions to marine plastic pollution will require changes in how products are made and used, especially reducing single-use plastics. Ideas for cleaning up ocean plastic include capturing plastic at river mouths before it enters the ocean and cleaning up large areas of floating plastic, called gyres.

Scope of the problem

Marine pollution from plastic is considered a major environmental problem. Many plastics used in daily life are not recycled. Single-use plastics contribute to about 8 million tons of plastic waste entering the ocean each year. If this trend continues, by 2050, there could be more plastic than fish in the ocean by weight. Between 2000 and 2010, more plastic was produced than in all previous years combined. By 2015, global plastic production reached 8,300 million metric tonnes, with 79% ending up in landfills or the natural environment. A recent estimate shows 14 million tons of plastic waste in the ocean. Scientists estimate that between 15 and 51 trillion pieces of plastic exist in the world’s oceans, from the surface to the seafloor. Oceans are Earth’s deepest and largest basins, with average depths of about 4 km. Gravity moves materials from land to the ocean, where they remain permanently. Plastic pollution is found everywhere in the ocean, including trenches, the seafloor, ridges, and coastal areas. Even remote islands have plastic from distant sources. Plastic waste collects in large circular ocean currents called gyres. These gyres form due to wind patterns and Earth’s rotation, and they trap plastic debris.

Plastics are widely used because they are flexible, moldable, and durable. They resist natural weathering that breaks down other materials. Ocean processes, like waves and sunlight, break plastic into smaller pieces called microplastics, rather than fully breaking them down. Scientists estimate that 5.25 trillion plastic particles, weighing nearly 300,000 tons, are found in five major gyre regions. Microplastics settle in deep-sea sediments, with four times as much plastic found in sediments as in surface waters. Plastics now interact with living organisms, such as whales, seabirds, and bacteria, which ingest them.

Over 300 million tons of plastic are made yearly, with half used for single-use items like bags and packaging. About 19–23 million tons of plastic enter aquatic ecosystems each year. Scientists estimate that 150 million metric tons of plastic exist in oceans. Plastic makes up 80% of all marine debris, from the surface to the deep sea. Because plastic is lightweight, much of it floats near the surface, but it is now found in many environments, including rivers, lakes, and the deep sea. Submarine canyons help move plastic to the deep ocean. Large plastic pieces, called macroplastics, can harm marine animals by filling their stomachs, leading to starvation.

Macroplastics break into smaller pieces, called microplastics, when exposed to sunlight, waves, and wind. Some tiny organisms, like amphipods, can break down plastic into millions of tiny fragments. Even though plastic is broken into smaller pieces, it does not biodegrade. About 90% of plastic in open ocean areas is microplastics. Microplastics also come from products like microbeads and nurdles. These tiny plastics are eaten by small marine life, like plankton, and move up the food chain. Plastics often contain harmful chemicals, which can enter the food chain and affect humans who eat fish.

• Microplastics mixed with sand and glass in sediment from the Rhine. The white bar shows 1 mm.
• How marine microorganisms interact with microplastics.

Types of sources and amounts

Plastic waste entering the oceans is increasing each year. Much of this plastic is in tiny pieces smaller than 5 millimeters. In 2016, it was estimated that about 150 million tonnes of plastic pollution were in the world’s oceans, and this number is expected to reach 250 million tonnes by 2025. Another study from 2012 estimated that there were about 165 million tonnes of plastic in the oceans. In 2020, new research found that the Atlantic Ocean has about ten times more plastic than earlier estimates suggested. The largest type of plastic pollution in the oceans, making up about 10%, is discarded fishing nets from the fishing industry.

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam together dump more plastic into the ocean than all other countries combined.

One study estimated that more than 5 trillion plastic pieces are floating in the ocean. These pieces are divided into four categories: small microplastics, large microplastics, meso- and macroplastics. In 2020, new measurements showed that the Atlantic Ocean has more than 10 times as much plastic as previously thought.

In October 2019, research showed that a significant portion of ocean plastic pollution comes from Chinese cargo ships. An Ocean Cleanup spokesperson said, "Many people focus on reducing plastic bags, straws, and single-use packaging to save the oceans. This is important, but when we look at the ocean, we often find other sources of plastic."

About 20% of plastic debris in the ocean comes from ocean-based sources, which equals 5.6 million tonnes. The MARPOL treaty, an international agreement, bans the disposal of plastics at sea. Merchant ships sometimes release plastic waste, including cargo, sewage, and used medical equipment, into the ocean. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 prohibits the discharge of plastics into the sea, including from naval vessels. Naval and research ships may also release waste and equipment. Pleasure craft can accidentally or carelessly release fishing gear and other waste. The largest source of ocean-based plastic pollution is discarded fishing gear, such as traps and nets, which may account for up to 90% of plastic debris in some areas.

Plastic waste from land enters the ocean mainly through stormwater runoff, which flows into rivers or is directly discharged into coastal waters. Plastic in the ocean moves with ocean currents, eventually forming large areas of floating debris called Great Garbage Patches.

The impact of microplastic and macroplastic on the ocean is not directly from dumping plastic into marine ecosystems but from polluted rivers that carry plastic to the ocean. Rivers can act as sources or sinks of plastic depending on the situation. While rivers are a major source of ocean plastic pollution, they may not contribute as much as direct input from coastal populations.

The amount of plastic recorded in the ocean is much less than the amount entering the ocean at any time. A UK study identified ten main types of macroplastic waste linked to consumer use. In this study, 192,213 litter items were counted, with 71% being plastic and 59% coming from consumer-related macroplastic items. Although freshwater pollution is a major contributor to marine plastic pollution, there is limited research and data collection on how much plastic moves from freshwater to marine environments. Most studies conclude that there is little data on plastic debris in freshwater and natural land environments, even though these areas are major sources of pollution. Changes in policies related to plastic production, use, disposal, and waste management are needed to reduce plastic entering freshwater systems.

A 1994 study of the seabed in the northwestern Mediterranean found an average of 1,935 debris items per square kilometer, with 77% being plastic. Of this, 93% were plastic bags.

About half of the plastic in the ocean floats, but organisms attaching to plastic can cause it to sink to the ocean floor, where it may harm sediment-dwelling species and affect gas exchange in the sediment. Factors like the density, size, and shape of microplastics influence their buoyancy. Microplastics can also form a buoyant layer of biofilm on the ocean’s surface. Changes in buoyancy due to microplastic ingestion have been observed in autotrophs, as it can interfere with photosynthesis and gas levels. However, this is more significant for larger plastic debris.

Estimates of land-based plastic contributions to the ocean vary. One study estimated that over 80% of ocean plastic comes from land-based sources, totaling 800,000 tonnes annually. In 2015, it was calculated that 275 million tonnes of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010,

Microplastics

A growing problem related to plastic pollution in the ocean is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are tiny plastic pieces smaller than 5 millimeters. They are often found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other products that remove dead skin. When these products are used, the microplastics pass through water treatment systems and enter the ocean. Because they are so small, they often escape the first filters at wastewater treatment plants. These tiny plastic pieces harm ocean life, especially animals that filter water for food, because they can accidentally eat the plastic and get sick. Microplastics are hard to clean up because of their size, so people can help by choosing products that use safer, non-plastic exfoliants.

Plastic is used widely around the world, so microplastics are now found in many parts of the ocean. They appear on beaches, in surface water, in the deep ocean, and even in ocean sediments. They are also mixed with other materials, such as dead plant or animal matter and soil particles carried by wind or rivers. The number of microplastics in an area often depends on how many people live nearby and how close the area is to cities.

More microplastics are found after heavy rainfall. Rainwater can wash plastic debris from land into waterways. The more rain there is, the more erosion happens, and the more plastic is carried into the ocean.

Microplastics enter waterways in many ways, such as from the breakdown of road paint, worn tires, city dust, spilled plastic pellets from shipping containers, abandoned fishing nets, synthetic clothing in laundry, and coatings on ships that degrade over time.

Coatings on ships are a major source of plastic pollution. In the German Bight, nearly 80% of collected plastic fragments were from ship coatings, not land-based sources. These coatings often contain materials like polyvinyl chloride or poly(methyl methacrylate), while land-based plastics are usually made from polypropylene, polyethylene, or polyethylene terephthalate. Ship coatings break down over time due to weather and ocean waves. Compared to land plastics, marine coatings release more harmful chemicals, such as adhesives, biocides, pigments, and UV absorbers. Some biocides, like tributyltin (TBT), are toxic and can harm marine life. TBT was linked to a condition called imposex in dog whelks in the 1980s. Today, some coatings use newer technologies, but these still release more chemicals. International rules for ship pollution do not yet fully address chemical pollution from coatings, though some biocides are restricted.

Once microplastics reach the ocean, their small size and light weight allow them to travel long distances through wind and ocean currents. Their movement depends on their shape, the speed of water, and other environmental factors. Scientists use computer models to track how microplastics move in the ocean.

Some microplastics leave the ocean and enter the air. Studies show that 92% of plastic debris on the ocean surface is microplastic. In 2020, scientists estimated that 14 million metric tons of microplastic already sit on the ocean floor, up from earlier estimates of 93,000 to 236,000 metric tons in 2015 and 270,000 metric tons in 2018.

A study of plastic debris in the eastern Pacific Ocean found that plastic concentrations increased significantly between 1972–1985 and 2002–2012, with a 10-fold rise in the number of plastic pieces per square kilometer.

Most microplastics in the Arctic Ocean come from Europe and North America. Surprisingly, microplastics are found in high amounts on glaciers and snow, even though they are not made or used near these areas. In 2021, Europe and Central Asia were responsible for about 16% of global microplastic pollution in the ocean.

The high levels of microplastics on glaciers suggest that wind plays a major role in spreading them.

Microplastics can collect in ocean foam and waves, possibly affecting how much sunlight reflects off the ocean or how gases are exchanged between the ocean and air. Studies have found microplastics in sea breezes, which may carry them back into the atmosphere.

Microplastics can build up in the gills and intestines of marine animals, disrupting their ability to eat and sometimes causing death. In some cases, microplastics make fish, mussels, and other creatures move and eat less. The size of microplastics affects how harmful they are, but the structure of an animal’s body also determines the damage they cause.

When microplastics are eaten by one animal, they can move up the food chain if a predator eats that animal. This process is called "trophic transfer." Whether microplastics are passed out of an animal’s body or stay inside depends on the animal’s diet and other factors.

Toxic chemicals

Toxic additives in plastic can escape into the environment when they come into contact with water. About 8,000 to 19,000 tonnes of these additives are carried by floating plastic materials worldwide, with a large amount reaching the Arctic. Water-based pollutants that do not mix with water collect on the surface of plastic waste, making plastic more harmful in the ocean than on land. These pollutants can build up in the fatty tissues of animals and move up the food chain, harming top predators and humans. Some additives in plastic can interfere with the endocrine system when eaten, while others may weaken the immune system or reduce reproduction rates.

Floating plastic waste can also absorb long-lasting chemicals from seawater, such as PCBs, DDT, and PAHs. Plastic waste can take in toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, which can poison any creature that consumes it. In addition to harm from being eaten, some of these chemicals affect brain cells in animals in a way similar to a hormone called estradiol, causing hormonal imbalances in wildlife. A study found that when plastics break down, they release harmful chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) and PS oligomer into the water. These chemicals may harm marine life in the area. BPA is a common chemical used in plastic packaging, where it can escape into food and expose humans. BPA acts like a hormone and can interfere with the endocrine system, leading to increased fat in animals like rodents.

Scientists collected seawater samples from around the world and found polystyrene derivatives in all samples. Polystyrene is a type of plastic used in items like styrofoam and household products. Researchers simulated how polystyrene breaks down in the open ocean. The results showed that polystyrene begins to break down at temperatures of 86° or higher, forming harmful chemicals such as BPA (which can harm animal reproduction), styrene monomer (a chemical suspected to cause cancer), and styrene trimer (a byproduct of polystyrene).

Plasticizers in microplastics are linked to abnormal growth and reproductive issues in many animals due to interference with hormones. Microplastics are also thought to cause irritation in the digestive system, changes to the gut’s natural bacteria, disruptions in energy and fat metabolism, and increased cell damage.

Organic pollutants, such as pesticides, can enter animals that eat microplastics, along with dangerous metals like lead and cadmium.

Accumulation sites

Plastic waste often gathers in the center of large ocean gyres. For example, the North Pacific Gyre has collected the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which is now believed to be one to twenty times the size of Texas (about 700,000 to 15,000,000 square kilometers). There may be as much plastic in the area as there is fish in the sea. This region has a very high amount of tiny plastic pieces floating in the top layer of water. In samples collected from the North Pacific Gyre in 1999, the amount of plastic was six times greater than the amount of zooplankton (the main animal life in the area).

Midway Atoll, like all the Hawaiian Islands, receives large amounts of debris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent of this debris is plastic, and it collects on the beaches of Midway, where it harms the bird population on the island.

A garbage patch is a swirling area of ocean trash caused by ocean currents and human plastic pollution. These human-made collections of plastic and other debris cause problems for ecosystems and the environment, harm marine life, pollute oceans with harmful chemicals, and help produce greenhouse gases. Once in the ocean, marine debris can move. Floating trash can be carried by wind or ocean currents, often ending up in the middle of ocean gyres where currents are weakest.

Environmental impacts

The trash that enters the oceans is harmful to marine life and humans. Toxins in plastic, such as diethylhexyl phthalate (a known carcinogen), lead, cadmium, and mercury, can cause serious health problems. These harmful substances are absorbed by plankton, fish, and eventually humans through the food chain. Eating contaminated fish can increase the risk of cancer, immune system issues, and birth defects. These toxins are also found in common items like food, water, salt, toothpaste, and other seafood. In Indonesia, which is the second-largest source of plastic waste, studies found that 50% of fishermen had microplastics in their stool, with concentrations ranging from 3.33 to 13.99 micrograms per gram of feces.

Most ocean litter is made of plastic, which remains in the environment for a long time and causes widespread pollution. In many countries, poor waste management allows plastic to enter water systems easily. By 2016, there were 5.25 trillion plastic particles weighing 270,000 tonnes. By 2021, this number had grown to between 15 and 51 trillion particles. Ocean currents carry plastic to large swirling areas called gyres, which act as pollution traps filled with plastic.

Research on ocean plastic pollution has grown rapidly since 2011, with studies increasing from 46 to 853 publications by 2019. Scientists are concerned that some organisms have adapted to live on floating plastic, allowing them to spread to new areas and become invasive species. Marine animals can suffer injuries, infections, and difficulty swimming after ingesting or becoming entangled in plastic. Floating plastic also helps invasive species spread, threatening marine biodiversity and the food chain. Studies in Australian waters found bacteria and other organisms living on tiny plastic pieces, showing that bacteria can break down plastic at the ocean surface. Researchers also discovered microfibers in deep ocean sediments, though the cause of this widespread plastic deposition remains unclear.

Plastic’s non-water-absorbing surface encourages the growth of biofilms, which support many life forms. Garbage patches in the ocean are studied for their effects on plastic breakdown in the surface layer of water. Unlike organic materials, which biodegrade, plastic breaks into smaller pieces without changing chemically. This process continues until the molecular level. Some plastics break down quickly in water, releasing harmful chemicals like bisphenol A, PCBs, and polystyrene derivatives. As plastic breaks into smaller pieces, it accumulates in the ocean’s upper layer, where it can be eaten by surface-dwelling organisms. This process allows plastic to enter the food chain and become invisible to the eye. Plastic exposed to sunlight and water also produces greenhouse gases, worsening environmental harm.

Most plastic particles are found in the open ocean, where sunlight causes them to break down into tiny pieces. These microplastics can be ingested and metabolized by microorganisms, turning into carbon dioxide. Some microplastics are absorbed directly into microorganism cells. Before reaching this stage, many organisms may interact with these plastic pieces.

Plastic pollution and climate change are connected. Toxins from breaking-down plastics in the air speed up climate change. Plastic production relies on fossil fuels, which release greenhouse gases. Oceans contain millions of pounds of plastic and also trap large amounts of greenhouse gases. As plastics break down in water, they emit greenhouse gases. The production of plastics also releases greenhouse gases, making it harder for oceans to absorb carbon and slow climate change. Burning plastic waste releases more toxins and black carbon into the air, which contributes to climate change. These pollutants are absorbed by oceans, polluting marine ecosystems and harming underwater life.

Effects on animals

Plastic waste has spread to all the world's oceans. This pollution harms about 100,000 sea turtles and marine mammals and 1,000,000 sea creatures each year. Large plastic pieces, such as shopping bags, can block the digestive tracts of large animals when they are eaten. This can cause starvation by stopping food from moving properly or by filling the stomach and making the animal feel full. Tiny plastic pieces, called microplastics, harm smaller marine life. For example, tiny plastic pieces in the center of ocean gyres are more numerous than live plankton and move up the food chain to affect all marine life.

Fishing gear, such as nets, ropes, lines, and cages, often gets lost in the ocean and can travel long distances. This has harmed many marine animals, including coral. The gear is made of non-biodegradable plastic, and coral can get tangled in it, leading to tissue loss and possible death.

Plastic pollution can poison animals, which can then harm human food supplies. Plastic pollution is described as the biggest threat to large marine mammals in the book Introduction to Marine Biology. Some marine species, like sea turtles, have been found with large amounts of plastic in their stomachs. This can cause starvation because the plastic blocks their digestive tracts. Sometimes, marine mammals get tangled in plastic products like nets, which can harm or kill them.

Entanglement in plastic debris has caused the deaths of many marine animals, such as fish, seals, turtles, and birds. These animals get caught in the debris and may suffocate or drown. They can also die from starvation or inability to escape predators. Entanglement often causes severe wounds. It is estimated that at least 267 animal species have suffered from entanglement or ingesting plastic. Over 400,000 marine mammals die each year from plastic pollution in the oceans. Marine animals can get caught in discarded fishing equipment, such as ghost nets. These nets are often made of synthetic materials like nylon, making them durable. If an animal grows larger while trapped, the plastic can cut into its body. Nets can also drag along the seabed, damaging coral reefs.

Some marine animals get tangled in large pieces of trash, which can cause strangulation or drowning. If the trash wraps around a non-vital part of the body, it may grow with a malformation. Plastic in the ocean becomes a cycle because marine life that dies from it eventually decomposes, releasing plastic back into the ecosystem.

Animals can get trapped in plastic nets and rings, which can cause death. Plastic pollution affects at least 700 marine species, including sea turtles, seals, seabirds, fish, whales, and dolphins. Cetaceans, such as whales, have been found in areas like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, where they face risks of entanglement or eating plastic.

Many sea animals eat plastic debris by mistake because it looks like their natural prey. Plastic that is bulky or tangled can get stuck in their digestive tracts. For example, sea turtles often mistake plastic bags for jellyfish because they look similar underwater. This can block their digestive system, leading to starvation or infection.

Many long-lasting plastic pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals, such as sea turtles and black-footed albatross. This can block their digestive pathways, reducing their appetite or causing starvation. In a 2008 study, 35% of 672 fish caught in the Pacific Gyre had ingested plastic.

As plastic increases in the ocean, more marine life faces risks from eating plastic or getting entangled. About 23% of aquatic mammals and 36% of seabirds have been harmed by plastic in the ocean. Since 70% of trash is estimated to be on the ocean floor, microplastics—tiny plastic pieces—can affect marine life at nearly every level of the food chain. Animals that eat from the ocean floor may accidentally ingest microplastics. Smaller marine life, like mussels and worms, sometimes mistake plastic for food.

Larger animals are also affected because they eat fish that may have microplastics in their bodies. Humans can also consume microplastics by eating seafood, such as oysters and clams. Studies show that 36% of seabird species eat plastic, mistaking it for food. Plastic can block intestines or tear the stomach lining of marine life, leading to starvation or death.

Some long-lasting plastics end up in the stomachs of marine animals. Plastic attracts seabirds and fish. When marine life eats plastic, it enters the food chain, which can cause problems when these animals are eaten by predators.

Multiple studies have found plastics and microplastics in the stomachs of marine animals. Eating large amounts of plastic debris, like fish nets, can kill marine animals by blocking their stomachs.

A 2021 study in Science

Effects on humans

Nanoplastics can enter the intestine of aquatic animals and may reach humans through breathing or eating, especially by consuming shellfish and crustaceans. Eating plastics has been linked to problems with reproduction, cancer, and genetic changes. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common chemical in many plastics. It has been connected to autoimmune diseases and hormone-disrupting chemicals, which can lower male fertility and increase the risk of breast cancer. Phthalate esters, found in food packaging materials, are also linked to reproductive issues because they harm the development of the male reproductive system. Toxins from phthalate esters may interfere with thyroid function, but current research is not certain about this connection.

Plastics in the human body can slow the body’s ability to remove toxins, leading to sudden harm or death. They may affect the central nervous system and reproductive system, but this is unlikely unless exposure levels are very high and absorption increases. Laboratory studies using human cells showed that polystyrene nanoparticles can be absorbed and may cause oxidative stress and increase inflammation.

Reduction efforts

Solutions to marine plastic pollution, along with plastic pollution in the entire environment, are connected to changes in how products are made and packaged, and a decrease in the use of single-use or short-lived plastic items. Ideas for cleaning ocean plastic include trapping plastic in rivers before it reaches the ocean and cleaning up large areas of plastic in ocean gyres.

Once microplastics enter the ocean, they are very hard and costly to remove. The organization "The Ocean Cleanup" uses nets to collect ocean plastic waste. Some people worry that this method could harm certain sea creatures, like neuston.

At TEDxDelft2012, Boyan Slat shared a plan to remove large amounts of ocean plastic from gyres. He called the project "The Ocean Cleanup" and proposed using ocean currents to guide plastic to collection platforms. This method would cost less and might even be profitable. It uses floating barriers to guide plastic toward collection points, avoiding harm to sea life and collecting even tiny plastic pieces. According to Slat, a gyre could be cleaned in five years, removing at least 7.25 million tons of plastic from all gyres. He also suggested stopping plastic pollution at its source to prevent gyres from forming again. In 2015, "The Ocean Cleanup" won an award for design excellence. A group of 30 ships, including a large mothership, tested how much plastic exists in the ocean using nets and aerial surveys.

The organization "everwave" uses special boats in rivers and estuaries to stop trash from entering the ocean.

Another project, called the Ocean Plastic Utilisation Ships System R&D (OPUSS), aims to make ocean cleanup practical, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective. It focuses on creating a new system for collecting ocean plastic waste, as current methods are not suitable for ocean conditions. The goal is to clean the ocean efficiently while keeping costs low.

The Clean Oceans Project (TCOP) uses technology to turn plastic waste into fuel like gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. This technology, developed by a Japanese company, helps communities recycle plastic and keep shorelines clean.

In 2019, scientists at Washington State University found a way to convert plastic waste into jet fuel.

The company "Recycling Technologies" has created a process to turn plastic waste into oil called Plaxx. The company is led by engineers from the University of Warwick.

Other companies working on converting plastic to fuel include GRT Group and OMV.

Problems with current international rules include focusing too much on pollution from the sea, using less strict rules, and having many different rules that do not work together. To solve this, four steps are important: making international laws more consistent, ensuring national policies match, coordinating international groups, and connecting science with policy. These issues are driving efforts to create a global plastics treaty. This treaty is being developed and is expected to be completed by the end of 2024.

In the European Union, banning the use of microplastics in products like cosmetics, detergents, and paints could reduce microplastic emissions by about 400,000 tons over 20 years.

The trade of plastic waste from developed to developing countries is a major cause of ocean pollution because some countries lack the ability to process the waste. To address this, the United Nations banned the trade of plastic waste unless it meets certain standards. This rule started in January 2021.

History

Plastic pollution was first discovered in central gyres, which are large rotating ocean currents. Observations from the Sargasso Sea were reported in the 1972 Journal of Science. In 1986, a group of undergraduate students collected data by recording the amount of plastic they found on their ship while traveling across the Atlantic Ocean. This research helped scientists gather long-term information about plastic in the Atlantic Ocean. It also helped Charles Moore discover the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Additionally, the students’ work contributed to the creation of the term "microplastics."

The term "microplastics" was first used by Richard Thompson in 2004. He described microplastics as tiny pieces of plastic, less than 5 mm in size, found in oceans and other water bodies. After Thompson introduced the term, scientists began studying the effects of microplastics on the ocean.

The term "plastic soup" was created by Charles J. Moore in 1997 after he found large areas of plastic pollution in the North Pacific Gyre, located between Hawaii and California. This area, known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, was previously described in 1988 by scientists who used the term "neuston plastic" to refer to small plastic pieces trapped in nets designed to catch surface plankton. Earlier studies from the 1970s had shown that neuston plastic was common in the central and western North Pacific and spread by ocean currents and wind.

In 2006, Ken Weiss wrote an article in the Los Angeles Times that informed the public about the Garbage Patch in the Pacific Ocean. In 2009, a group of researchers traveled to the Pacific Ocean to investigate whether the Great Pacific Garbage Patch was real. After several days at sea, they found hundreds of plastic pieces, which appeared as a mixture of microplastics rather than large plastic items.

The term "plastic soup" is sometimes used to describe pollution caused by microplastics, which are tiny plastic pieces less than 5 mm in size, such as fibers from synthetic clothing during laundry. In 2017, the British National Federation of Women’s Institutes passed a resolution titled "End Plastic Soup," focusing on reducing microplastic pollution.

The Plastic Soup Foundation, based in Amsterdam, is an organization that works to raise awareness about plastic pollution, teach people about the issue, and support solutions to reduce it.

As of January 2019, the Oxford English Dictionary did not include the terms "plastic soup," "neuston plastic," or "neustonic plastic." However, it defined "microplastic" as "Extremely small pieces of plastic, manufactured as such (in the form of nurdles or microbeads) or resulting from the disposal and breakdown of plastic products and waste." The dictionary’s examples of microplastics all relate to pollution in the ocean, with the earliest reference from a 1990 study in the South African Journal of Science.